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SCHOOL  FEEDING 

ITS  HISTORY  AND  PRACTICE 
AT  HOME  AND  ABROAD 


LOUISE  STEVENS  BRYANT 

Of  the  Psychological  Clinic,  University  of  Pennsylvania 


WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION  BY 

P.  P.  CLAXTON 

United  States  Commissioner  of  Education 


16  FULL-PAGE  ILLUSTRATIONS  AND 
6  CHARTS  IN  TEXT 


J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT    COMPANY 

PHILADELPHIA  AND  LONDON 


<& 


COPYRIGHT,  19 13  /&-.   J 


BY  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


PUBLISHED,   FEBRUARY,   Z9I3 


PRINTED  BY  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANT 

AT  THE  WASHINGTON  SQUARE  PRESS 

PHILADELPHIA,  U.S.A. 


TO 

DR.  LIGHTNER  WITMER 

IN  APPRECIATION  OF  HIS  WORK 
FOR  "ORTHOGENICS,"  THE  NORMAL 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  EVERY   CHILD 


263823 


THE  STATE,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND 
CHILD  WELFARE 

The  main  principle  which  should  guide  us  in 
discussing  the  question  of  the  State  and  Child  Wel- 
fare, I  consider,  is  that  the  State  looks  after  the 
child  primarily  because  he  is  a  child,  and  not  because 
he  is  destitute  or  sick  or  criminally  inclined.  There- 
fore it  behoves  us  not  to  wait  until  one  or  more 
of  these  calamities  overtakes  him  before  we  super- 
vise his  upbringing.  This  principle  was  half  con- 
ceded by  the  establishment  of  an  Education  Author- 
ity. Half  only,  for  until  lately  the  child's  parents 
still  had  to  be  destitute  before  the  State  concerned 
itself  in  any  way  with  his  bodily  needs.  Years  of 
experience,  however,  in  the  teaching  of  underfed 
children  have  brought  home  to  our  people  the  fact 
that  we  cannot  separate  mental  and  bodily  welfare. 

The  prolonged  controversy  over  the  feeding  of 
school  children  has  led  to  the  acceptance  of  a  second 
principle  of  action:  that  the  welfare  of  the  child 
should  be  looked  after  by  one  authority  only — i.e., 
that  the  necessary  feeding  should  be  undertaken  by 
the  School  Authority,  and  not  by  the  Poor  Law 
Guardians. 

It  seems  to  me  that  the  adoption  by  the  Legislature 


SCHOOL  FEEDING 

of  these  two  principles  makes  it  both  inevitable  and 
desirable  that  all  public  provision  for  children  of 
school  age,  whether  destitute  or  not,  should  be  en- 
trusted entirely  to  the  Education  Authority.  It  has 
become  impossible  to  defend  the  practice  of  allowing 
the  responsibility  for  a  child's  welfare  to  shift  auto- 
matically from  the  shoulders  of  the  Education 
Authority  to  those  of  the  Destitution  Authority  and 
back  again,  according  as  the  parents'  means  sink 
below  a  vaguely  defined  line  or  rise  above  it. 

I  would  add  a  reminder  that  the  only  way  of 
enforcing  the  natural  and  proper  responsibility  of 
the  parent  for  the  general  welfare  of  his  child  is 
to  set  up  a  definite  standard  of  mental  and  bodily 
nurture  and  to  insist  that  no  child  shall  receive  less 
upon  any  excuse  whatsoever.  Without  such  a  stand- 
ard it  is  impossible  for  the  State  to  make  any  clear 
demand  upon  the  parent  to  do  his  duty.  With  it 
the  State  can  really  insure  the  health  and  efficiency 
of  its  future  citizens. 

Finally,  let  me  repeat  the  first  principle  that  the 
child  must  be  looked  after  because  he  is  a  child,  and 
must  never  be  sacrificed  for  the  sake  of  "  improv- 
ing "  the  moral  character  of  his  parents,  however 
much  they  may  need  it.  If  someone  must  suffer,  it 
is  but  common-sense  to  urge  that  it  should  be  the 
present  generation,  not  the  future  one. — Beatrice 
Webb,  in  "The  Child,"  January,  191 1. 


PREFACE 

This  book  deals,  first,  with  the  history  and  present 
status  of  legislation  concerning  and  administration 
of  meals  in  public  elementary  schools  in  all  coun- 
tries, and,  second,  with  the  physiological  aspects  of 
malnutrition  during  the  growing  period,  its  causes, 
classification,  results,  the  basis  of  school  dietetics 
on  the  food  needs  of  the  growing  child  and  the  scien- 
tific construction  of  menus  to  fulfil  these.  Most  of 
this  is  brought  together  for  the  first  time  and  the 
presentation  is  non-technical.  The  sources  were 
many,  for  the  most  part  answers  to  letters  of  inquiry 
and  official  documents  and  reports. 

Material  on  high  school  lunches  has  been  omitted 
because  this  presents  quite  different  problems  in 
education  and  administration  and  because  the  sub- 
ject has  already  been  widely  exploited. 

The  treatment  is  primarily  informational,  con- 
troversial matter  having  been  eliminated  as  far  as 
may  be. 

During  the  course  of  the  work,  which  occupied 
nearly  three  years,  I  had  the  most  cordial  co-opera- 
tion of  many  people.  My  thanks  are  especially  due 
to  the  following  individuals :  Dr.  Leonard  P.  Ayres, 
Dr.  Luther  Gulick  of  New  York,  Mr.  H.  H.  Bon- 
nell,  Miss  Alice  C.  Boughton,  Miss  Mary  Leeds  of 


PREFACE 

Philadelphia,  Dr.  Mary  Schwartz  Rose  of  Co- 
lumbia University,  Dr.  Ira  S.  Wile,  Miss  Kittredge 
and  other  members  of  the  New  York  School  Lunch 
Committee,  Miss  Haisler  and  Superintendent 
Pearse  of  Milwaukee,  Dr.  Meyerding  of  St.  Paul, 
Miss  Small  of  Buffalo,  Mrs.  Hotchkin  of  Roches- 
ter High  School,  Miss  Cook  of  Syracuse;  and  in 
foreign  countries  to  Miss  Helene  Simon  of  Berlin, 
Dr.  Gastpar  of  Stuttgart,  Dr.  Tonsig  of  Padua, 
Dr.  Erismann  of  Zurich,  Mr.  Alexander  Schiavi 
of  Milan ;  and  to  the  following  organizations  whose 
officers'  responses  to  requests  for  assistance  often 
involved  the  special  gathering  of  material  and  pho- 
tographs at  obvious  cost  of  time  and  effort:  The 
American  Institute  of  Social  Service,  The  Nutrition 
Laboratory  of  Columbia  University,  The  Sheffield 
Scientific  School  of  Yale,  The  Boston  Home  and 
School  Society,  The  Philadelphia  Home  and 
School  League,  The  British  Institute  of  Social 
Service,  the  Education  Committee  of  Bradford, 
England ;  the  London  County  Council,  Zentralstelle 
fur  Volkswohlfahrt,  Berlin;  to  the  Prefects  of  the 
Departments  of  France  and  to  the  French  Consulate 
of  New  York  City,  Det  Sociale  Sekretariat  and  Bib- 
liotek,  Copenhagen;  Centralverein  zur  Bekostigung 
armer  Schulkinder  in  Wien  (Vienna),  Austria-Hun- 
gary; Central  Bureau  voor  Sociale  Adviezen,  Am- 
sterdam ;  Central forbundet  for  socialt  arbete,  Stock- 
holm, Sweden,  and  to  Zentralstelle  fur  Soziale  Lit- 
eratur,  Zurich,  Switzerland, 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Preface v 

Introduction 9 

I 

History  and  Present  Status  of  the  School  Feeding 
Movement 13 

II 
Physical  Deterioration  and  Malnutrition  in  England    22 

III 
Provision  of  Meals  in  the  Public  Elementary  Schools 
of  Great  Britain 43 

IV 
The  Cantines  Scolaires  of  France 77 

V 

School  Meals  in  German  Municipalities 99 

VI 
School  Feeding  in  Other  European  Countries 130 

VII 
Lunches  in  American  Elementary  Schools 147 

VIII 
Provision  of  Meals  in  Open  Air  Schools 184 


CONTENTS 

PAOB 
IX 

Investigations    of    Underfeeding    among    American 
School  Children 196 

X 

Malnutrition  in  Chdldhood:     Its  Symptoms,  Causes, 
Results  and  Classification 211 

XI 

The  Food  Needs  of  Growing  Children 233 

XII 
School  Menus 248 

Bibliography  (Annotated) 261 

Appendices,  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G 299 

Index 333 


TABLES 


PAGE 

Investigation  of  Ill-Nourished  Children,  Manchester,  1904.     37 
Number  of  Children  Attending  Meals  and  Number  of  Meals 

Served  in  Years  from  1907-08  to  December,  19 10 62 

Provision  of  Meals  in  English  Schools,  Financial  Summary, 

1908-11 64 

Causes  of  Malnutrition 125 

Sample  Recipe  Card  Showing  Constituents  and  Fuel  Values 

of  Ingredients 156 

Monthly  Account  Sheet  in  Use  for  Philadelphia  Lunches. . .   157 
Daily  Record  Card  Kept  by  Saleswoman  at  School  Lunch. .  158 
Average  Gains  of  Children  Attending  Lunches  Voluntarily 
for  Six  Months  Compared  with  Average  Gains  of  Chil- 
dren Not  Attending  the  School  Lunches 1 61 

Average  Gains  During  Three  Months  of  Children  Fed  Reg* 
ularly  Compared  with  Average  Gains  of  a  Similar  Group 

of  Children  Not  Fed  Regularly 162 

Showing  Comparative  Marks  in  Lessons  and  Conduct  at 
Three  Months'  Interval  of  Fed  with  Unfed  Group  of 

Children 162 

Food  Used  in  One  School  Month — Syracuse  Open- Air  School 
— Showing  Money-Cost   and   Food  Value.     Twenty 

Meals,  Twenty-five  Children 192 

Investigation  of  Underfeeding  in  Chicago 203 

Relation  between  Income  and  Underfeeding  in  American 

Workingmen's  Families 206 

Incomes  of  Families  of  Underfed  Children 207 

Housing  of  Underfed  School  Children 209 

Average  Height  and  Weight  of  All  Children  from  5-18  Years, 

According  to  Housing 220 

Relation  of  Nutrition  and  Vulnerability  to  Disease 228 

Daily  Food  Needs  of  the  Average  Child,  Age  10,  Weight 
27-29  kilos 243 


TABLES 

Showing  Amounts  of  Various  Foodstuffs  Considered  Neces- 
sary at  Different  Meals  for  the  Average  School  Child 
Weighing  27-28  Kilos 245 

Comparison  of  Distribution  of  Food  Constituents  and 
Values  in  the  Three  Daily  Meals  Under  Conditions  of 
Good  Home  Feeding  with  Distribution  When  School 
Meals  Supplement  Poor  Home  Feeding 246 

Comparative  Food  Value  of  Lunches  Purchased  by  Children  249 

Food  Values  Purchased  by  One  Cent 250 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

Rochester  High  School  Students  at  Lunch 18 

Full  Tables.    Bristol,  England 46 

School  Dining-Room.    Bristol,  England 46 

Charging  Oven.    Bradford,  England 58 

Interior  of  Motor  Wagon.    Bradford,  England 58 

Filling  Food  Vessels  with  Soup  and  Rice  Pudding. 

Bradford,  England 66 

Cutting    Bread    and    Mincing    Parsley.      Bradford, 

England 66 

Washing  up  After  New  York  School  Lunch 148 

Preparation  of  New  York  School  Lunch 148 

Serving  and  Waiting  in  Line.    New  York  City 150 

Three-Cent  Dinner  in  Philadelphia  Schools 154 

Lunch   Room   Equipped  and   Supported   by  Mothers' 

Club,  Philadelphia 160 

Just  to  Show  How  it   Looks.    Three-Cent   Dinner, 

Philadelphia 162 

Kindergarten  Children.    Three-Cent  Dinner,  Phila- 
delphia     162 

The  Principal  Eats  Dinner  Each  Day  with  the  Chil- 
dren in  this  Philadelphia  School 166 

The  First  School  Lunch  in  Pittsburg 166 

Special  Class  of  Mentally  Defective  Children  at 

Lunch 174 

Ready  to  Serve  Rural  School  Lunch.  Minnesota —  176 

Cooking  Corps  in  Minnesota  Rural  School 176 

Warm  Lunch  Equipment  of  One-Room  Rural  School, 

Minnesota 178 

Children  at  Lunch.    Open-Air  School,  Orange,  N.  J.  190 

Open-Air  School,  Syracuse,  N.  Y 190 

The  Waiting  Line,  Buffalo,  N.  Y 200 

A  Happy  Boy.    A  Big  Meal.    Indianapolis 200 

Noon  Lunch  in  Two  Buffalo  Schools 206 


CHARTS  AND  DIAGRAMS 


PAGB 

I  Diagram:    Average  Increase  in  Weight  of  Children  in 

Bradford  School  Feeding  Experiment  Dur- 
ing 25  Weeks 52 

II  Chart:       Average  Weights  of   One-room,    Two-room, 

Three-room  and  Four-room  Children  at  each 
Age  from  Five  to  Fourteen 221 

III  Table:     Relative   Weight    and  Height  Table,  Boys. 

American  Standard  Measurements 223 

IV  Table:      Relative  Weight    and   Height  Table,  Girls. 

American  Standard  Measurements 224 

V  Chart:       Daily  Food  Needs  in  Grams  of  School  Children 

of  Varying  Ages  and  Weights 241 

VI  Chart:     Average  Purchasing  Power  of  One  Cent  Spent 

for  Unplanned  Lunch,  Contrasted  with  Pur- 
chasing Power  if  Spent  for  School  Lunch  . .  251 


INTRODUCTION 

More  and  more  are  we  coming  to  understand 
that  education  is  for  life,  and  that  physical  health 
is  essential  to  full  mental  and  moral  development 
and  effective  living.  To  the  extent  that  the  body 
fails  to  serve  the  will,  the  will  is  paralyzed  and  the 
best  emotions  rendered  useless.  Mere  good  wishes 
can  not  accomplish  much.  Little  service  can  be 
rendered  by  him  who  stands  forever  "  shivering 
on  the  brink  of  action."  The  establishment  of  the 
physical  health  of  children  has  therefore  come  to 
be  regarded  as  a  most  important  part  of  their  edu- 
cation. To  a  very  large  extent  this  must  depend 
on  right  habits  of  eating.  Children  must  have 
food  in  proper  quantities  and  of  the  right  kind, 
and  must  eat  in  the  right  way  at  right  times.  There 
must  always  be  doubt  as  to  the  value  of  the  results 
of  a  school  day  for  the  child  who  is  listless  from 
want  of  food  or  from  eating  large  quantities  of 
indigestible  or  non-nutritious  food. 

The  custom  of  providing  meals  for  children  at  \ 
school  has,  in  recent  years,  become  well  established 
both  in  America  and  Europe.    In  America  at  least 
the  work  was  begun  first  in  the  high  schools.    For 
several  years  mid-day  meals  have  been  provided 

9 


10  INTRODUCTION 

for  high  school  children  in  many  of  our  cities  and 
larger  towns.  It  is  only  recently  that  the  more 
important  task  of  providing  meals  for  the  smaller 
children  has  been  attempted,  except  in  a  very  few 
places.  At  present  meals  are  provided  in  one  or 
more  elementary  schools  in  nearly  a  half -hundred 
cities.  In  Europe,  this  work  was  begun  earlier 
than  here — in  Germany  a  century  and  a  quarter 
ago — and  the  school  luncheon  is  now  part  of  the 
daily  program  in  the  elementary  schools  of  many  of 
the  most  progressive  countries. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  the  school  luncheon 
idea,  now  well  rooted  in  this  country,  will  spread 
very  rapidly,  especially  in  our  cities.  The  reasons 
why  it  should  are  easily  understood.  In  our  large 
cities  and  smaller  industrial  towns,  many  children 
come  to  school  having  had  little  or  no  breakfast. 
Many  have  eaten  their  breakfast  at  a  very  early 
hour,  some  as  early  as  5  or  6  o'clock,  and  so  become 
hungry  and  faint  before  the  noon  hour.  These 
children  should  have  a  light,  wholesome  luncheon 
in  the  middle  of  the  forenoon.  For  many  there  is 
nothing  to  eat  at  home  if  they  return  there  at  the 
noon  hour.  Many  who  find  food  at  home  at  the 
noon  hour  find  it  cold  and  must  eat  it  alone. 
Father  and  mother  and  the  older  children  of  the 
family  are  in  the  shops  or  in  the  mills.  In  the 
smaller  towns  and  in  country  communities  many 


INTRODUCTION  11 

children  live  so  far  from  school  they  can  not  go 
home  for  luncheon  and  return  within  the  time 
allowed.  They  must  therefore  go  without  luncheon, 
or  eat  cold,  unsuitable  food  brought  from  home  in 
baskets,  buckets,  or  paper  bags.  Others  who  do  go 
home  for  luncheon  can  do  so  only  by  running  home, 
bolting  their  food  and  hastening  back  to  school. 
In  many  places  in  which  the  parents  and  older  mem- 
bers of  the  family  return  for  the  mid-day  meal,  it 
i9  very  inconvenient  to  adjust  the  meal-time  to  the 
convenience  of  the  children  in  school.  In  some 
cities  and  towns  the  school  day  begins  at  8.30  or  9 
o'clock,  and  continues  until  1.30,  2,  or  2.30,  with 
one  or  two  brief  intermissions,  usually  of  only 
fifteen  minutes  each.  Where  this  practice  obtains, 
many  children  go  without  food  until  the  school  day 
is  over,  and  then  go  home  to  a  cold  luncheon,  eaten 
rapidly  and  in  such  order  as  it  can  be  had,  losing 
altogether  the  social  value  of  the  meal.  I  have 
known  many  school  children  whose  daily  schedule 
of  meals  consisted  of  a  very  light  breakfast  at  6  or 
7,  a  cold  dinner  bolted  at  2  or  3  o'clock,  and  supper 
at  6-  Again,  many  parents,  instead  of  providing  a 
luncheon  for  their  children  at  school,  give  them 
small  amounts  of  money  with  which  to  buy  food, 
and  which  the  children  spend  for  unwholesome  and 
unnutritious  stuff  sold  at  large  profits  from  push 
carts  and  at  corner  stores. 


n  INTRODUCTION 

These  conditions  should  not — must  not — con- 
tinue. The  remedy  seems  to  lie  in  the  well-managed 
school  luncheon,  which  can  be  made  wholesome, 
educative,  and  saving  in  money,  in  time,  and  in 
the  health  of  children. 

Because  the  movement  already  started  will  prob- 
ably continue  with  accelerated  speed,  there  is  all 
the  more  reason  for  a  book  like  this  which  Mrs. 
Bryant  has  prepared  after  a  long  and  careful  study 
of  the  subject  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  In  her 
painstaking  correlation  and  interpretation  of  the 
facts  concerning  this  great  new  movement,  she  has 
rendered  a  distinct  service  to  the  children  of 
America  and  to  all  who  are  interested  in  their 
welfare. 

The  book  is  practical.  The  information  in  re- 
gard to  what  is  being  done  in  various  countries 
and  cities  is  reliable.  Problems  not  yet  solved  and 
difficulties  not  yet  overcome  are  frankly  admitted 
and  pointed  out.  The  book  is  not  dogmatic.  In 
its  full  descriptions  of  experiments  and  clear  state- 
ments of  results  it  is  illuminating. 

P.  P.  Claxton. 

Washington,  D.  C, 
February,  1913. 


SCHOOL  FEEDING 


i 

History  and  Present  Status  of  the  School 
Feeding  Movement 

School  feeding  is  an  educational  movement  a 
century  and  a  quarter  old,  national  in  scope  in  many 
of  the  important  countries  of  the  world  and  at  the 
present  time  spreading  and  developing  with  wonder- 
ful rapidity.  The  object  of  the  school  feeding  move- 
ment is  to  supply  such  facilities  as  will  make  it 
possible  for  every  child  to  secure  an  adequate,  whole- 
some noon  meal  despite  the  fact  that  he  is  attending 
school.  The  necessity  for  special  provision  to  se- 
cure this  end  arises  where  many  of  the  pupils  live 
so  far  away  from  the  school  as  to  make  it  impos- 
sible for  them  to  return  home  at  noon,  or  where 
there  is  no  adequate  warm  noon  meal  awaiting 
them  if  they  do  return.  One  or  both  of  these  con- 
ditions may  result  from  any  one  of  a  most  varying 
range  of  causes. 

13 


14  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

They  exist  in  connection  with  forms  of  educa- 
tional administration  which  are  otherwise  most 
admirable,  such  as  the  consolidation  of  rural  schools, 
and  single  sessions  in  high  schools  in  sparsely  settled 
districts.  They  are  found  in  densely  settled  portions 
of  great  cities,  where  many  mothers  are  absent  from 
home  all  day  at  work.  At  the  other  end  of  the 
social  scale  they  occur  in  the  homes  of  the  cultured 
and  well-to-do,  where  parents  are  frequently  absent 
during  the  mid-day  hours  engaged  in  social  and 
civic  work. 

It  is  but  rarely  that  these  conditions  exist  in 
any  very  large  proportion  of  the  children's  homes, 
but  while  the  proportion  is  not  great,  the  actual 
number  of  children  affected  in  each  school  system 
is  frequently  very  large  indeed,  and  the  necessity 
for  alleviation  then  becomes  imperative.  Society's 
machinery  for  meeting  this  need  is  school  feeding. 

I  GERMANY 

The  first  provision  of  school  meals  of  which  we 
have  record  was  made  in  Munich  in  1790,  when 
municipal  soup  kitchens  were  started  by  Count 
Rumford  as  part  of  his  international  campaign 
against  vagrancy.     The  kitchens  were  designed  to 


SCHOOL  FEEDING  MOVEMENT,         15 

meet  the  needs  of  the  people  of  all  ages,  and  from 
the  start  the  school  were  encouraged  to  send  groups 
of  children  to  them  for  a  warm  meal  at  noon.  This 
work  was  long  unorganized  but  never  discontinued, 
and  in  the  seventies  the  obligation  of  providing 
meals  was  put  on  the  school  authorities.  From  this 
ancient  beginning  the  school  feeding  movement 
spread  throughout  the  German  Empire  until  now  it 
is  national  in  scope,  and  about  half  of  the  cities 
contribute  to  support  wholly  or  in  part  school  break- 
fasts or  dinners. 

FRANCE 

School  feeding  in  France  began  in  1849,  when 
the  National  Guard  of  the  Second  District  in  Paris 
presented  to  the  city  the  unexpended  balance  in  their 
treasury  with  the  request  that  it  be  used  to  help  poor 
children  get  a  schooling.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  the  "  Caisses  des  Ecoles  "  or  school  funds  which 
were  made  obligatory  throughout  the  country  in 
1882  and  are  employed  among  other  purposes  in 
maintaining  the  "  Cantines  Scolaires "  or  school 
restaurants  that  are  now  universal  in  France. 

ENGLAND 

The  founder  of  school  feeding  in  England  was 
Victor  Hugo,  who  in  the  early  sixties  provided 


16  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

warm  meals  in  his  own  house  in  Guernsey  for  the 
children  attending  a  nearby  school,  and  so  gave  the 
initial  impetus  which  led  to  the  establishment  in 
London  in  1866  of  "  The  Destitute  Children's  Din- 
ner Society."  During  the  next  forty  years  similar 
charitable  societies  were  formed,  until  in  1905,  when 
the  Provision  of  Meals  Act  was  under  considera- 
tion, there  were  in  London  alone  no  less  than  158 
voluntary  organizations  for  school  feeding  and  a 
total  of  360  in  England.  For  the  most  part  these 
societies  were  conducted  by  teachers  in  the  differ- 
ent schools  with  little  attempt  at  central  organiza- 
tion and  no  aim  beyond  the  immediate  relief  of 
acute  distress. 

The  Provision  of  Meals  Act,  passed  in  1906, 
gave  the  Local  Educational  Authorities  permission 
to  instal  school  restaurants  as  part  of  the  regular 
school  equipment.  This  resulted  in  the  rapid  de- 
velopment of  a  system  similar  to  the  French  Can- 
tines,  which  by  March,  1909,  had  extended  over  100 
towns  and  cities. 

WIDE   EXTENT 

From  these  early  beginnings  in  Germany,  France, 
and  England,  and  with  the  various  objects  of  char- 
itable relief,  promoting  hygiene  and  encouraging 


SCHOOL  FEEDING  MOVEMENT         17 

school  attendance,  the  work  of  school  feeding  has 
spread,  until  now,  grown  beyond  the  local  issue, 
it  has  received  national  recognition  and  been  made 
the  subject  of  national  legislation  in  France, 
Switzerland,  Holland,  Great  Britain,  Denmark,  and 
Bavaria.  It  is  national  in  scope  with  support  by 
the  municipalities  in  Germany,  Italy,  Denmark, 
Sweden,  Norway,  Finland,  Austria,  and  Belgium. 
It  has  been  started  in  Spain,  Russia,  and  the  United 
States. 

PROMINENCE   OF    MOVEMENT 

The  movement  for  school  feeding  is  by  no  means 
an  obscure  one,  and  during  the  past  two  decades 
has  been  the  subject  of  serious  and  extensive  in- 
vestigation in  most  of  the  countries  mentioned.  In 
England  the  Provision  of  Meals  Act  came  as  a 
crystallization  of  public  opinion  that  had  been  shap- 
ing for  forty  years  and  had  been  tremendously 
stimulated  by  the  activities  of  four  Parliamentary 
Commissions  appointed  to  investigate  the  physical 
condition  of  the  people. 

In  Germany  the  problem  was  first  given  wide 
publicity  in  1890  when  a  National  Congress  was 
held  to  discuss  problems  concerning  vacation  colonies 
for  school  children.     At  this   convention   it  was 


18  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

agreed  that  if  children  were  to  receive  permanent 
benefit  from  their  country  outings  they  must  be 
assured  good  food  all  the  year  round.  In  1897  the 
Social  Democrats  introduced  a  bill  in  the  Reichstag 
providing  for  school  feeding  in  cities,  but  this  was 
defeated  on  the  ground  that  such  a  measure  would 
increase  the  migration  of  the  people  to  the  large 
cities.  Recently,  however,  since  England  has  passed 
her  national  act,  the  subject  has  been  extensively 
studied  in  Germany,  and  there  is  now  serious  and 
widespread  agitation  for  national  legislation. 

BEGINNINGS   IN   AMERICA 

As  in  the  case  of  many  other  educational  ad- 
juncts, the  United  States  has  been  slow  in  following 
the  lead  of  the  European  countries  in  adopting 
school  feeding.  Long  after  it  had  passed  the  ex- 
perimental stage  in  Europe,  it  was  still  regarded  as 
a  startling  innovation  here.  Purely  charitable  work 
was  undertaken  as  early  as  1855,  when  the  Chil- 
dren's Aid  Society  in  New  York  City  began  to 
furnish  free  lunches  for  the  children  of  the  Industrial 
Schools. 

Almost  from  the  beginning  of  his  superintendency 
of  the  New  York  schools,  Dr.  William  H.  Maxwell 


SCHOOL  FEEDING  MOVEMENT         19 

has  urged  the  installation  of  lunches  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools,  where  all  who  wish  may  buy  at 
cost  a  warm,  nourishing  noon  meal.  Since  1908 
lunches  in  the  elementary  schools  have  been  con- 
ducted by  the  co-operative  efforts  of  the  educational 
authorities  and  a  committee  of  social  workers, 
physicians,  and  teachers. 

The  Starr  Center  Association  started  penny 
lunches  in  two  Philadelphia  schools  over  fifteen 
years  ago;  a  work  that  with  the  co-operation  of 
other  societies  has  continued  and  grown  until  at 
present  there  are  more  than  ten  schools  with  some 
form  of  school  lunch. 

After  two  years  of  agitation  and  investigation, 
the  Board  of  Education  in  Chicago  in  the  fall  of 
19 10  appropriated  $1200  for  the  experiment  of 
installing  lunches  in  six  city  schools.  It  is  too  early 
to  speak  of  results.  Recent  reports  show  that  the 
meals  are  a  success  so  far  as  they  may  be  measured 
by  the  attendance  and  the  children's  interest. 

In  twenty-seven  other  cities  in  fourteen  differ- 
ent States,  women's  clubs,  teachers,  and  school  doc- 
tors have  organized  to  introduce  lunches  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools,  and  in  at  least  twenty  other  places 
the  matter  is  being  considered. 


20  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

Though  there  have  been  no  legislative  enact- 
ments providing  for  school  lunches  in  American 
cities,  at  least  one  important  step  in  this  direction 
has  been  taken  in  Massachusetts.  This  takes  the 
shape  of  a  bill  favorably  reported  by  the  Com- 
mittee on  Education  of  the  Lower  House  in  the 
Session  of  19 12  and  provides  that  school  boards 
shall  be  empQwered  to  expend  school  funds  for 
the  support  of  lunches  in  elementary  school  systems. 

SUMMARY 

1.  School  feeding  began  in  Germany.  It  is  a 
century  and  a  quarter  old  in  Europe  and  more 
than  half  a  century  old  in  America. 

2.  It  is  a  movement  national  in  scope  in  fifteen 
important  countries. 

3.  School  feeding  is  provided  for  in  the  national 
legislation  of  six  countries. 

4.  The  movement  has  attained  great  momentum 
in  America  in  the  last  twenty  years,  and  school 
lunches  now  constitute  a  part  of  the  elementary 
schools  systems  of  thirty  American  cities. 

There  is  no  longer  any  question  as  to  whether  or 
not  we  must  seriously  face  the  school  lunch  problem. 
School  lunches  already  constitute  an  important  part 


SCHOOL  FEEDING  MOVEMENT         21 

of  the  systems  of  elementary  schools  in  our  largest 
American  cities,  and  nothing  is  more  certain  than 
that  the  movement  will  rapidly  extend  in  the  next 
few  years.  The  problem  confronting  those  who 
have  at  heart  the  welfare  of  American  public  schools 
is  no  longer  "  Shall  we  have  school  lunches?  "  but 
rather,  "  How  may  we  best  guide  this  movement 
so  as  to  develop  all  of  its  potential  benefits  and  at  the 
same  time  avoid  possible  dangers  ?  " 


II 

Physical  Deterioration  and  Malnutrition  in 
England 

The  children  of  a  country  are  the  capital  of  a  country,  and 
it  is  in  the  use  and  value  of  its  capital  that  we  may  discern  a 
nation's  wisdom. — Earl  Beauchamp,  1902. 

Shortly  before  the  close  of  the  Boer  War, 
Major-General  Frederick  Maurice  of  the  British 
Army  startled  his  countrymen  by  announcing  that 
only  two  men  out  of  every  five  who  wished  to  be- 
come soldiers  were  physically  fit  for  army  life.1  In 
Maurice's  own  words,  it  was  "  a  vital  matter  .  .  . 
to  enquire  what  is  the  meaning  between  the  five  and 
the  two.  Does  it  mean  that  the  class  which  neces- 
sarily supplies  the  bulk  of  the  ranks  in  our  army 
consists  in  this  large  proportion  of  men  physically 
unfit?  If  so,  what  are  the  causes  of  this  fatal  con- 
dition of  things,  and  are  they  remediable  ?  " 

This  roused  the  country  to  an  eager  considera- 
tion of  its  blood  and  brawn,  and  a  series  of  search- 

1  Maurice,    Sir   Frederick,   The   National   Health,   in   The 
Contemporary    Review,    January,    1902.      See    also    A.    Watt 
Smyth   in  his  "  Physical  Deterioration,  its   Causes  and  the 
Remedy",  ch.  i. 
22 


DETERIORATION  IN  ENGLAND        23 

ing  investigations  into  the  physical  make-up  of  the 
nation  followed. 

Attention  was  first  turned  to  the  schools.  Im- 
mediately after  the  publication  of  Maurice's  state- 
ment the  king  appointed  a  commission  to  find  out 
what  means  of  physical  training  was  provided  in  the 
schools  and  what  further  education  was  needed  to 
improve  the  national  physique  and  to  build  up  the 
national  army. 

The  Royal  Commission  on  Physical  Training  ex- 
amined the  opportunities  for  physical  education  in 
all  grades  of  institutions  from  the  universities  down. 
They  'came  to  the  conclusion  that,  so  far  as  the 
elementary  schools  were  concerned,  the  trouble  was 
not  with  the  lack  of  gymnastic  drill,  but  with  the 
bodily  condition  of  the  children  themselves.  In 
many  cases  they  were  simply  too  weak  to  be  trained 
physically.  In  Edinburgh,  for  example,  where  no 
less  than  30  per  cent,  of  the  children  in  certain 
districts  were  under-nourished,  it  was  found  that  the 
method  of  gymnastics  followed  was  not  only  doing 
no  good,  but  actual  harm. 

In  contrast  to  the  conditions  in  the  regular  public 
schools  came  reports  of  the  rapid  development  of 
army  and  navy  recruits  in  the  training  schools  where 


24  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

full  regular  meals  were  as  prominent  and  important 
a  feature  as  was  military  drill.  Surgeon-General 
Don  submitted  evidence  showing  that  young  boys 
gained  from  five  to  seven  pounds  in  weight  and  an 
inch  in  chest  girth  after  seven  weeks  of  army  life. 

Wherever  food  was  provided  as  in  the  case  of 
special  schools  for  the  physically  and  mentally  de- 
fective, or  in  industrial  schools  for  truant  or  neg- 
lected children,  physical  training  was  reported  to 
have  good  results.  Indeed  the  children  in  the  in- 
dustrial schools  were  in  many  ways  the  physical 
and  mental  superiors  of  children  of  the  same  social 
grade  in  the  regular  elementary  schools.  Comment- 
ing on  this  fact,  the  Commission  said :  "  These 
institutions  certainly  give  to  the  boys  or  girls  who 
come  under  their  influence  advantages  as  regards 
physical  conditions  which  are  not  open  to  the  chil- 
dren of  independent  and  respectable  though  very 
poor  parents/'2  The  difference  between  these  two 
classes  of  children  was  both  marked  and  painful. 

With  this  and  a  mass  of  similar  evidence  before 
them,  the  Commission  became  convinced  that, 
"  among  the  causes  which  tell  against  the  physical 

"Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Physical  Training, 
p.  30,  par.  164. 


DETERIORATION  IN  ENGLAND        25 

welfare  of  the  population,  the  lack  of  proper  nourish- 
ment is  one  of  the  most  serious  " ;  and  that  "  the 
question  of  the  proper  and  sufficient  feeding  of 
children  is  one  which  has  the  closest  possible  con- 
nection with  any  scheme  which  may  be  adopted  for 
their  physical  and  equally  for  their  mental  work." 
They  accordingly  recommended  the  general  estab- 
lishment of  school  lunches  for  which  the  children 
would  pay  a  small  fee  as  they  had  formerly  done 
for  their  instruction. 

Though  the  evidence  presented  by  the  Commis- 
sion on  Physical  Training  was  valuable  and  sug- 
gestive so  far  as  it  went,  they  did  not  even  try  to 
answer  the  question  the  British  public  was  asking, 
which  was,  "  Is  our  race  deteriorating,  and  if  so 
what  are  the  causes?"  A  year  later  a  new  in- 
vestigating body,  known  as  the  Interdepartmental 
Committee  on  Physical  Deterioration,  was  ap- 
pointed to  study  the  general  social  and  economic 
causes  for  the  alleged  deterioration  of  certain 
classes,  and  to  point  out  means  of  diminishing  it. 

The  new  commission  consulted  sixty-eight  wit- 
nesses, men  and  women  from  all  parts  of  Great 
Britain,  who  were  either  officially  connected  with 
the  government  in  school,  factory,  or  town  adminis- 


26  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

tration,  or  else  members  of  well-known  institutions 
of  charity  and  education,  and  all  of  them  were 
intimately  acquainted  with  the  daily  lives  of  the 
masses  of  the  people;   thirty-seven  were  physicians. 

The  first  hopeful  finding  was  that  there  was  no 
hereditary  taint  apparent  that  might  cause  a  progres- 
sive degeneration  of  the  people.  Each  new  gen- 
eration started  life  with  a  new  lease  of  energy. 
But  shocking  conditions  of  life  were  found,  that  for 
large  numbers  more  than  counterbalanced  the 
strength  at  birth.  It  was  upon  these  conditions  and 
the  possibility  of  their  betterment  that  the  Com- 
mission dwelt. 

Bad  as  were  the  other  destructive  factors,  such 
as  congestion  of  population,  unsanitary  dwellings, 
involuntary  unemployment,  infant  mortality,  drunk- 
enness, etc.,  none  was  more  prominent  than  the 
chronic  malnutrition,  found  at  all  ages,  in  town  and 
country. 

This  malnutrition  was  specially  marked  among 
school  children,  although  the  decrease  in  breast 
feeding  and  the  absence  of  a  good  milk  supply  were 
responsible  for  much  bad  feeding  earlier.  Never- 
theless people  seemed  to  understand  the  feeding  of 
infants  and  little  children  better  than  that  of  older 


DETERIORATION  IN  ENGLAND        27 

ones.  When  the  children  began  to  go  to  school  they 
were  left  to  shift  for  themselves  at  meal  times,  and 
usually  adopted  the  adult  habits  of  tea  and  coffee 
and  highly  seasoned  canned  food. 

Dr.  Eichholz,  one  of  the  most  prominent  wit- 
nesses, declared  that  the  following  was  a  fair  de- 
scription of  the  dietary  of  thousands  of  city  chil- 
dren: "Their  breakfasts  are  nominally  bread  and 
tea,  and  the  dinner  nothing  but  what  a  copper  can 
purchase  at  the  local  fried  fish  shops,  where  the 
most  inferior  kinds  of  fish  are  fried  in  reeking  cot- 
ton-seed oil."  Milk  and  fresh  vegetables  were  un- 
known quantities,  while  meat  was  almost  lacking, 
except  perhaps  at  the  Sunday  dinner,  when  it  was 
of  a  poor  quality.  In  short,  the  Commission  found 
that  the  food  was  bad  for  three  reasons:  first  it 
was  insufficient;  second  it  was  irregular;  third  it 
was  entirely  unsuitable  in  quality,  and  was  specially 
lacking  in  cell-building  elements. 

At  the  same  time  the  strain  of  school  work,  added 
to  the  demands  of  rapid  growth,  made  the  subject 
of  food  during  the  school  period  of  intrinsic  impor- 
tance. Indeed,  Dr.  Hutchison,  the  well-known  Eng- 
lish dietitian,  gave  as  his  opinion  that  the  most 
critical  time  of  a  child's  life,  so  far  as  its  nutrition 


28  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

goes,  is  the  school  period — between  ten  and  fifteen 
years.  This  being  the  case,  Dr.  Hutchison  added 
that  "  looking  at  it  purely  scientifically,  it  would  be 
an  extremely  important  thing  to  ensure  to  every 
child  at  school  a  sufficient  and  proper  meal." 

Few  figures  were  given  to  show  the  precise 
number  of  children  in  the  schools  who  were  mark- 
edly affected  by  bad  feeding.  Dr.  Eichholz  made 
the  statement  that  in  London  there  were  not  fewer 
than  122,000  children  who  were  underfed,  that  is, 
16  per  cent,  of  the  entire  school  population.  In 
Manchester  15  per  cent,  were  reported  underfed. 
Dr.  Kelly,  Roman  Catholic  Bishop  of  Ross,  asserted 
that,  "  In  the  South  of  Ireland  it  is  commonly  the 
case  that  children  come  to  school  underfed.,,  There 
was  a  good  deal  more  similar  evidence,  mostly  in 
the  form  of  general  remarks  about  the  wide  extent 
of  malnutrition  in  the  schools. 

With  one  exception,  the  witnesses  were  agreed 
that  bad  food  was  the  most  serious  of  all  the  factors 
making  for  degeneracy,  particularly  juvenile  de- 
generacy. They  agreed  with  Dr.  Eichholz  that 
"  food  is  the  point  about  which  turns  the  whole 
problem  of  degeneracy,"  and  with  Dr.  Mackenzie, 
that  "of  the  three  selective  agencies  determining 


DETERIORATION  IN  ENGLAND        29 

national  development,  housing,  occupation,  and 
feeding,  unquestionably  the  most  important  is  feed- 
ing." 

Although  the  poverty  and  ignorance  at  the  bot- 
tom of  malnutrition  and  other  evils  might  be  com- 
bated only  by  widespread  social  legislation  and 
reform,  nevertheless  the  Commission  was  convinced 
that  the  problem  as  it  touched  the  school  might  be 
directly  attacked,  and,  like  the  earlier  commission, 
they  proposed  that  school  lunches  be  introduced. 
"  We  have  got  to  the  point,"  said  one  witness, 
"  where  we  must  face  the  question  whether  the 
logical  culmination  of  free  education  is  not  free 
meals  in  some  form  or  other,  it  being  cruelty  to  force 
a  child  to  go  and  learn  what  it  has  not  the  strength 
to  learn." 

The  members  of  the  Commission,  however,  were 
not  in  entire  agreement  with  this  witness,  and  they 
therefore  suggested  that  the  lunches  be  maintained 
wherever  possible  by  private  funds,  and  that  the 
school  authorities  should  be  allowed  to  interpose 
where  these  failed,  to  supply  the  meals  from  the 
public  funds. 

The  situation  before  the  public  now  was  this: 
The  two  commissions  which  had  started  out  to 


30  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

answer  Major  General  Maurice's  question  had 
shown  that  the  physical  condition  of  the  people  at 
large  was  in  need  of  careful  attention.  This  applied 
most  of  all  to  the  food  of  the  people,  and  to  that  of 
the  children  in  particular.  Both  commissions  had 
recommended  school  meals  as  a  partial  remedy,  and 
as  a  step  in  the  larger  campaign  against  the  forces  of 
deterioration. 

It  remained  to  find  out  just  what  was  the  exact 
need  for  school  feeding  and  what  was  being  done 
already  by  private  individuals  in  the  matter  before 
proceeding  to  organize  meals  on  a  public  basis.  A 
special  Commission  was  appointed  to  look  into  the 
matter  of  medical  inspection  of  schools  and  the 
voluntary  provision  of  school  meals  throughout  the 
country.  The  bulk  of  their  attention  was  devoted 
to  the  subject  of  school  feeding.  They  sent  in- 
quiries to  all  the  local  school  authorities  through- 
out the  country  to  find  out  just  how  many  schools 
were  equipped  with  the  lunches,  and  how  these  were 
run.  In  addition  they  examined  thirty-five  wit- 
nesses, all  of  whom  were  actively  engaged  in  the 
work  of  school  feeding,  most  of  them  being  school 
officers  as  well. 

The  report  of  this  Commission  was  published  in 


DETERIORATION  IN  ENGLAND        31 

November,  1905.3  It  was  found  that  there  were 
no  less  than  355  separate  organizations  for  school 
feeding  in  146  places,  town  and  country,  that  were 
serving  meals  of  some  sort  anywhere  from  three 
weeks  in  winter  to  four  months,  to  about  100,000 
children.  Some  of  these  organizations  were  old — 
the  earliest  one  dating  from  1866  in  London. 

The  Committee  on  the  Medical  Inspection  and 
Feeding  of  Children  did  not  attempt  to  find  out  how 
many  children  were  in  need,  nor  to  estimate  the 
efficiency  of  the  existing  organizations  in  meeting  the 
need.  This  was  left  for  the  Select  Committee  that 
considered  the  Provision  of  Meals  Bill,  presented 
in  Parliament  a  few  months  later,  which  was  de- 
signed to  give  the  schools  direct  responsibility  for 
feeding  the  children  when  necessary. 

The  Select  Committee  on  the  Provision  of  Meals 
Bill  went  over  the  reports  of  the  three  earlier  com- 
missions, and  examined  besides  twenty-eight  wit- 
nesses, all  of  whom  had  had  experience  with  school 
meals  either  as  teachers  and  superintendents,  school 
doctors,  members  of  charitable  societies,  the  Society 
for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Children,  etc. 

'Report  of  the  Interdept.  Com.  on  Med.  Inspection  and 
the  Feeding  of  Children  Attending  Public  Elementary  Schools. 


32  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

As  the  final  passage  of  the  Bill  came  as  a  result 
of  the  findings  of  this  Commission,  especially  in 
regard  to  the  inadequacy  of  the  existing  provisions, 
we  shall  consider  them  somewhat  in  detail. 

VOLUNTARY    FEEDING    SOCIETIES 

The  work  of  the  private  societies  may  be  illus- 
trated by  the  following  description  given  before 
Parliament  by  Dr.  Airy,  who  had  had  charge  of  the 
Birmingham  Free  Dinners  Association  for  twenty 
years.4 

"  We  began  with  the  idea  of  giving  penny  din- 
ners to  children  who  could  pay  for  them,  thinking, 
in  our  ignorance,  that  that  would  suffice  for  the 
need  of  the  poor  population.  We  speedily  found 
that  we  were  doing  a  rapidly  declining  business 
among  the  wealthier  classes,  and  that  there  were 
thousands  of  children  who  could  not  pay  a  penny 
under  any  circumstances.  We  therefore  reduced 
the  price  to  a  halfpenny,  still  intending  them  to  be 
self-supporting  or  nearly  so.  We  were  then  con- 
fronted with  the  revelation  that  there  were  hundreds 
of  children  in  every  district  in  Birmingham  who 

*  Minutes  of  Evidence  before  the  Select  Committee  on  the 
Educational  (Provision  of  Mbals)  Bill,  1906,  p.  132. 


DETERIORATION  IN  ENGLAND        3$ 

could  no  more  pay  a  halfpenny  for  a  dinner  than 
they  could  find  change  for  half  a  sovereign.  We 
therefore  at  once  determined  to  give  up  all  idea  of 
self-support,  and  we  resolved  to  make  it  a  charity 
and  devote  it,  until  we  saw  our  way  a  great  deal 
further,  to  keeping  alive  (I  think  that  is  the  best 
expression  I  can  use)  the  very  poorest  children  who 
either  got  nothing  at  all  for  dinner,  or,  if  they  got 
anything,  only  got  a  bit  of  bread  with  a  little  grease, 
perhaps,  scraped  on  it.  We  made  a  careful  census 
of  the  city,  and  in  Birmingham  at  that  date  (1886) 
we  reckoned  that  there  were  from  2,500  to  3,000 
children  who  were  in  a  normal  state  of  semi-starva- 
tion. In  addition  to  that  we  had  to  reckon  for 
the  margin  that  there  always  was  from  any  excep- 
tional cause  of  unemployment.  We  did  our  best  to 
(satisfy  is  hardly  the  word)  meet  as  far  as  we 
could  the  needs  of  those  children." 

The  dinners  were  given  only  to  those  children 
who  could  expect  practically  nothing  at  home.  The 
relief  was  further  limited  by  the  character  of  the 
meals  which  was  purposely  designed  to  discourage 
any  children  not  in  desperate  straits.  Besides  this 
there  was  a  careful  inquiry  into  the  home  circum- 
stances of  each  child.  Only  those  children  might 
3 


34  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

receive  the  meals  who  were  passed  on  by  the  head 
teacher,  the  class  teacher,  and  the  visiting  attend- 
ance officer.  In  spite  of  all  this,  the  society  normally 
fed  2,500  children  in  ten  different  centres  each  day. 
Some  idea  of  the  pressing  need  may  be  gathered 
from  this  additional  comment  by  Dr.  Airy: 

"  We  were  much  distressed  at  the  fact  that  the 
children  would  come  a  mile  or  a  mile  and  a  half 
to  eat  this  poor  dinner,  and  they  would  come  through 
slush  and  snow  and  wet.  .  .  ." 

EFFECTS   OF   THE    MEALS 

The  work  of  the  voluntary  societies,  limited 
though  it  was,  had  shown  good  results,  as  was 
everywhere  asserted  by  the  teachers  who  volun- 
teered to  help  in  the  selection  and  service  of  the 
children.  In  Birmingham,  for  example,  the  teachers 
were  "  unanimous  that  the  system  pursued  enabled 
the  children  to  do  their  ordinary  school  work,  and 
they  reported  that  the  difference  was  perfectly  ex- 
traordinary." 

Even  where  the  meals  were  continued  only  a  few 
weeks,  the  effect  was  good.  One  teacher  testified: 
"  Yes,  after  a  week,  I  can  see  difference  in  a  child. 
She  becomes  less  listless,  and  less  fidgety.    You  can 


DETERIORATION  IN  ENGLAND        35 

see  a  much  more  healthy  tone  about  the  skin  after  a 
fortnight.  It  is  most  marked."  The  teachers'  in- 
terest in  helping  the  children  was  often  increased 
by  the  fact  that  they  found  the  children  so  much 
easier  to  teach  after  the  breakfast  or  lunch  at  school. 

Dr.  Hall  of  Leeds,  who  had  for  years  examined 
children  for  admission  to  the  factories,  and  had 
also  charge  of  school  feeding  in  certain  schools, 
gave  most  interesting  testimony  as  to  the  effect  of 
regular  meals  on  children  who  were  seriously  under- 
fed. 

He  took  fifty-five  children,  between  seven  and 
eight  years  old,  all  considerably  below  the  normal 
weight,  and  fed  them  for  a  fortnight,  weighing 
them  carefully  before  and  after.  In  that  time  they 
gained  an  average  of  eighteen  ounces  (one  pound, 
two  ounces)  apiece.  These  children  were  not 
"  hungry " ;  they  had  to  be  persuaded  to  eat  at 
first.  Dr.  Hall  says :  "  I  tell  you  the  slum  child  is 
not  hungry,  and  will  go  without  food  if  he  cannot 
have  his  stale  food,  his  pickles,  liver,  and  onions 
and  blood  made  up  into  a  sort  of  pudding.  These 
children  are  evidently  to  a  medical  expert  underfed. 
Look  at  them.  You  have  at  once  the  evidence  of 
it.    You  have  the  ill-nourished  skin,  the  ill-nourished 


36  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

hair,  the  stunted  growth,  the  light  weight.  Lift  up 
the  clothes.  When  I  went  amongst  them  first  of 
all  I  thought  they  were  flea-bitten.  Nothing  of  the 
sort.  They  suffer  from  purpuric  petechias  I  took 
the  children  and  I  fed  them  well.  At  the  end  of 
six  months  there  was  not  a  flea-bite.  It  had  all 
disappeared."  5 

INADEQUACY    OF    VOLUNTARY    SOCIETIES:     NUMBER 

OF  CHILDREN  BEING  FED  VERSUS  NUMBER 

IN    NEED 

But  societies  such  as  those  described  were  not 
able  to  feed  anything  like  the  number  needing  to  be 
fed.  For  example,  in  London  there  were  158  sepa- 
rate organizations  feeding  something  under  30,000 
children,  for  four  months  in  the  winter.  This  was 
not  a  quarter  of  the  122,000  reported  to  be  underfed 
and  probably  in  need  all  the  year. 

In  Manchester,  Dr.  Brown  Ritchie  examined 
10,180  children  taken  from  all  grades  in  twenty 
schools  over  the  city.  The  results  are  shown  in 
the  following  table: 

"Minutes  of  Evidence  Before  the  Interdept.  Com.  on 
Medical  Inspection  and  the  Feeding  of  School  Children, 
pp.  203,  204. 


DETERIORATION  IN  ENGLAND        37 

Table  I .  Investigation  of  Ill-Nourished  Children, 
Manchester,  1904 " 

Number  Badly  Very  Badly 

Examined      Nourished  Nourished 

7  worst  schools   2,031       610—30%       367—18% 

13  remaining  schools   8,149    1,379— 17%       806—10% 

20  schools    10,180    1,989—19%    1,173—11% 

It  will  be  noted  that  1,989  were  badly  nourished 
and  1,173  were  very  badly  nourished.  That  is  to 
say  3,162  or  nearly  a  third  of  all  those  examined 
were  below  par  as  to  their  nutrition.  The  marked 
cases  formed  over  10  per  cent,  of  the  whole. 

At  the  time  of  the  investigation  only  about  a  fifth 
of  the  children  needing  it  were  being  fed  at  school, 
although  there  was  a  well-organized  private  society 
in  Manchester. 

In  Bradford,  6,000  children  were  found  by  medi- 
cal inspection  to  be  underfed,  that  is  to  say,  11 
per  cent,  of  the  total  school  enrolment,  while  the 
private  society  was  able  to  feed  only  2,000  at  most. 
Similar  figures  were  reported  from  other  places,  but 
not  in  sufficient  detail  to  warrant  a  specific  numerical 
statement  for  the  whole  country. 

A  summary  is  given  by  Dr.  Crowley  of  the  Lon- 

•  Minutes  of  Evidence  Before  the  Interdept.  Com.  on 
Medical  Inspection  and  the  Feeding  of  School  Children, 
p.  250. 


38  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

don  County  Council  as  follows :  "  These  children 
of  poor  nutrition  are  very  common.  .  .  .  Speaking 
for  our  large  towns  generally  it  has  been  said  that 
they  constitute  approximately  10  to  15  per  cent, 
of  the  whole  school  population.,,  7 

VOLUNTARY   FUNDS  SPORADIC   AND  INSUFFICIENT 

The  real  trouble  with  the  voluntary  societies  was 
that  their  funds  were  entirely  uncertain.  It  was 
impossible  to  raise  them  steadily  enough  to  plan 
ahead.  Several  witnesses  called  attention  to  the 
fact  that  people  seemed  willing  enough  to  give  at 
Christmas,  or  when  the  weather  was  very  bad,  but 
they  did  not  seem  able  to  grasp  the  fact  that  the 
children's  hunger  was  not  an  affair  of  the  weather, 
or  even  of  the  time  of  year.  One  man,  whose  busi- 
ness it  was  to  gather  funds  for  several  London 
societies,  said :  "  When  wage  earning  people  on 
small  wages  are  thrown  out,  the  pinch  comes. 
They  have  no  reserve  to  fall  back  upon.  Then  you 
come  to  February,  when  the  better  class  of  people 
who  have  larger  reserves  are  beginning  to  sell  parts 
of  their  furniture,  to  pawn,  and  so  on.  They  begin 
to  feel  the  pinch  then.     By  that  time  the  stream 

'Crowley,  Dr.  Ralph  H.,  The  Hygiene  of  School  Life, 
p.  16. 


DETERIORATION  IN  ENGLAND        39 

of  charity  is  very  difficult  to  tap ;  it  has  really  ceased 
to  flow.  It  is  at  Christmas  time  that  you  hope  to  get 
people  quickened.  A  fortnight's  really  bad  cold 
weather  will  bring  money,  but  when  the  bright  or 
mild  muggy  weather  comes,  you  may  as  well  appeal 
to  the  air." 

The  difficulty  of  raising  funds  was  well  shown  in 
the  case  of  Birmingham,  where  it  was  decided  in 
1904  that  a  yearly  income  of  4500  pounds  was 
needed  to  provide  a  meal  every  school  day  for  the 
4500  children  in  need.  The  man  who  out  of  his 
own  pocket  had  been  supplying  breakfasts  to  about 
a  thousand  very  poor  children,  was  asked  if  he  con- 
sidered that  there  would  be  any  difficulty  in  raising 
the  4500  pounds  "  if  an  appeal  were  made  to  the 
people  of  Birmingham  by  duly  constituted  persons." 
He  replied :  "  I  think  there  would  be  more  than 
difficulty;  I  think  there  would  be  an  impossibility. 
As  a  subscriber,  I  have  seen  the  last  published 
accounts  of  the  Birmingham  Free  Dinners  Asso- 
ciation. This  charity  has  been  in  operation  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  years,  and  has  had  among  its 
officers  and  subscribers  some  of  the  most  influential 
people  in  the  district.  Its  total  list  of  subscriptions 
and  donations  is  under  300  pounds  per  annum,  and 
even  this  includes  75  pounds  contributed  by  teachers 


40  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

in  the  council  schools.  To  raise  a  sum  of  from 
4000  pounds  to  5000  pounds  a  year  by  these  means 
seems  to  me  quite  hopeless." 

It  was  obviously  unjust  to  expect  that  the  teachers 
should  contribute  to  the  support  of  the  meals 
especially  when  they  were  already  giving  their  ser- 
vices, and  yet  they  often  did  so  feeling  strongly 
the  children's  need. 

ADMINISTRATIVE  DIFFICULTIES 

Not  only  were  the  voluntary  societies  thus 
hampered  at  every  turn  by  lack  of  funds,  but  there 
were  administrative  difficulties  nearly  as  bad.  Ow- 
ing to  the  lack  of  funds  the  societies  were  not 
permanent  in  many  cases,  and  the  meals  were 
stopped  during  the  summer,  though  the  provision 
was  often  just  as  necessary  then. 

Again,  because  of  the  lack  of  official  regulation, 
there  was  frequently  considerable  overlapping  of 
effort  in  certain  districts,  while  others  remained  neg- 
lected. A  third  difficulty  was  that  the  voluntary 
societies  had  no  means  of  prosecuting  delinquent 
parents  on  the  one  hand,  nor  on  the  other  of  assur- 
ing that  provision  was  made  for  the  most  needy 
children. 


DETERIORATION  IN  ENGLAND        41 

SCHOOL  FEEDING  BY   PUBLIC  CHARITY 

An  attempt  was  made,  shortly  after  the  publica- 
tion of  the  report  of  the  Committee  on  Physical 
Deterioration  to  relieve  some  of  these  administrative 
difficulties  by  means  of  the  "  Relief  of  School 
Children's  Order."  This  was  a  national  order 
which  provided  that  children  found  to  be  underfed 
at  school  were,  on  application  by  teachers  or  super- 
intendents, to  be  put  in  charge  of  the  public  poor 
officials,  and  fed  free  for  a  month,  the  cost  being 
chargeable  to  the  father  as  a  loan.  Where  the  father 
failed  to  pay,  he  was  prosecuted  for  vagrancy  or 
cruelty,  or  else,  if  he  could  not  pay,  he  was  dis- 
enfranchised as  a  pauper. 

The  results  of  this  order  were  as  clumsy  as  its 
name,  and  it  soon  became  a  dead  letter.  The  school 
authorities  objected  to  the  harsh  methods  of  the 
"  Guardians  of  the  Poor,"  and  declared  that  they 
served  no  good  end  to  education.  Parents  objected 
even  more  decidedly  and  refused  to  allow  their 
children  to  be  fed.  Voluntary  subscriptions  fell  off 
at  once  and  as  the  order  limited  the  relief  to  the 
absolutely  destitute,  a  great  many  children  not 
technically  destitute,  but  who  had  been  helped  be- 
fore, were  left  unprovided  for. 


42  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

The  order  served  the  purpose,  however,  of  show- 
ing that  the  provision  of  meals  was  a  school  prob- 
lem and  of  establishing  the  principle  that  to  be 
efficient,  the  provision  of  meals  must  be  carried  out 
under  the  direction  of  school  authorities.  This  prin- 
ciple was  recognized  in  the  Provision  of  Meals  Act, 
passed  December,  1906. 

We  have  now  considered  the  growth  of  public 
opinion  on  the  subject  of  malnutrition  of  children, 
the  awakening  of  the  public  conscience  by  the  re- 
ports of  the  Commissions  on  Physical  Training  and 
Physical  Deterioration,  the  careful  investigations  by 
two  other  committees  on  the  existing  voluntary 
provisions  for  school  feeding,  their  findings  as  to 
the  inadequacy  of  these,  the  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
deal  with  the  problem  by  public  charity  and  the  final 
crystallization  of  ideas  and  opinion  in  the  Provision 
of  Meals  Act,  passed  after  four  years  of  discussion 
and  inquiry. 

The  working  of  the  Act,  and  the  present  con- 
dition of  school  feeding  in  England  will  be  taken 
up  in  the  following  chapter. 


Ill 

Provision  of  Meals  in  the  Public  Elementary 
Schools  of  Great  Britain 

The  Provision  of  Meal  Act,  passed  in  December, 
1906,  virtually  transferred  the  obligation  of  feeding 
hungry  children  in  the  schools  of  England  and 
Wales  from  charity,  public  or  private,  to  the  local 
educational  authorities. 

It  did  more  than  provide  for  the  children  in  ab- 
solute need,  and  who,  in  the  words  of  the  Act,  were 
"  unable  by  reason  of  lack  of  food  to  take  full  ad- 
vantage of  the  education  afforded  them."  These 
children,  about  ten  per  cent,  of  all,  did  not  exhaust 
the  number  who  might  be  benefited  by  a  wholesome 
school  lunch.  Many  more  were  dependent  on  hasty, 
cold  and  irregular  meals,  snatched  at  home,  or  bought 
with  pennies  at  noon  at  small  shops  nearby.  This 
was  bad,  not  only  because  these  children  furnished 
ready  recruits  for  the  malnutrition  ranks,  but  be- 
cause bad  habits  and  low  standards  of  food  were 
being  formed  to  work  future  ill. 

The  Act  was  designed  to  combat  the  kind  of 

43 


44  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

ignorance  that  gave  little  children  tea  and  bread 
for  breakfast,  pickles,  fried  fish  and  pastry  for  lunch, 
and  tea,  jam  and  bread  for  supper.  To  do  this 
required  more  than  sporadic  "  relief  work."  It 
meant  careful  and  continuous  education  of  parents 
and  children. 

As  a  step  in  this  needed  education,  the  Act  pro- 
vided that  school  funds  might  be  used  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  regular  school  restaurants,  where  warm, 
wholesome  meals  might  be  served  daily  to  all  those 
wanting  them,  at  cost  to  those  able  to  pay,  and  free 
to  those  found  to  be  unable  to  pay.  All  classes  of 
school  children  might  thus  be  benefited  and  the 
pernicious  small  food  shops  supplanted. 

This  object  of  the  Act  and  the  spirit  in  which  it 
was  conceived  are  shown  in  the  following  statement 
made  by  the  National  Board  of  Education  in  the 
circular  sent  with  the  Act  to  each  Local  Educa- 
tional Authority: 

The  Act,  which  is  purely  permissive,  and  imposes  no  duty 
where  a  Local  Educational  Authority  think  it  unnecessary  to 
bring  it  into  operation,  is  primarily  of  an  educational  char- 
acter. Its  object  is  to  ensure  that  children  attending  public 
elementary  schools  shall,  so  far  as  possible,  be  no  longer 
prevented  by  insufficiency  of  suitable  food  from  profiting  by 
the  education  offered  in  our  schools,  and  it  aims  at  securing 
that  for  this  purpose  suitable  meals  shall  be  available  just  as 


MEALS  IN  SCHOOLS  45 

much  for  those  whose  parents  are  in  a  position  to  pay  as  for 
those  to  whom  food  must  be  given  free  of  cost. 

There  are  five  general  provisions  for  the  conduct 
of  such  school  restaurants  which  may  be  briefly- 
summarized  as  follows : 

i.  The  meals  are  to  be  controlled  by  special 
committees  known  as  School  Canteen  Committees, 
on  which  the  local  school  board  must  be  represented. 

2.  The  entire  cost  of  equipment  and  service  may 
be  borne  by  the  school. 

3.  The  cost  of  the  food  is  to  be  met  wherever 
possible  by  the  parents  of  children  receiving  the 
meals,  or  by  voluntary  contributors.  Where  money 
from  these  sources  fails,  a  local  tax,  not  to  exceed 
a  rate  of  yid.  on  the  pound,  or  2  mills  on  the  dollar, 
may  be  raised  to  cover  the  cost  of  food. 

4.  Wherever  a  parent,  though  able,  fails  to  pay 
the  cost  of  the  food,  this  is  to  be  collected  sum- 
marily as  a  civil  debt,  but  its  non-payment  is  never 
to  be  made  a  cause  for  disenfranchisement. 

5.  Teachers  are  never  to  be  required  to  take  any 
part  in  the  organization  or  service  of  the  meals. 

The  Act  includes  no  further  details  of  administra- 
tion. The  texts  of  the  Act  and  that  of  the  circular 
of  information  above  referred  to  are  given  in  Ap- 
pendices A  and  B. 


46  SCHOOL4  FEEDING 

HOW  THE  ACT  HAS  WORKED 

The  experience  in  Bradford,  a  manufacturing 
town  with  a  homogeneous  population  of  300,000 
and  about  60,000  school  children,  may  be  taken  as 
typical  of  the  way  in  which  British  towns  generally 
are  availing  themselves  of  the  provisions  of  the  Act. 

School  feeding  was  not  new  in  Bradford  when 
the  Act  was  adopted.  The  experiment  had  been 
tried  before  of  supplying  the  very  poorest  children 
with  food,  first  through  private,  and  then  through 
public  charity,  but  unsuccessfully,  because  of  lack 
of  funds,  and  general  administrative  difficulties. 
Before  attempting  to  start  meals  on  a  large  scale, 
therefore,  the  authorities  waited  until  they  had  de- 
termined, by  definite  experiment  and  investigation, 
first  the  extent  to  which  the  problem  of  malnutrition 
was  immediately  pressing,  and  second,  what  sort  of 
meals  should  be  provided,  and  what  was  the  best 
method  of  serving  them. 

THE  EXTENT   OF   MALNUTRITION   IN   BRADFORD 
IN    I907 

The  first  thing  was  to  find  out  the  number  of 
children  in  the  Bradford  public  schools  who  were 
in  absolute  need  and  because  of  lack  of  food  were 


:.    ; 


FULL    TABLES.        BRISTOL,    ENGLAND 


SCHOOL   DINING-ROOM.       BRISTOL,   ENGLAND.        THE   USE   OF   UPPER   STORIES 
FOR  LUNCH   ROOMS   IS   A   HAPPY   IDEA 


MEALS  IN  SCHOOLS  47 

unable  to  take  full  advantage  of  the  education  pro- 
vided for  them.  After  an  examination  of  the 
physical  condition  of  all  the  children  in  the  schools, 
Dr.  Crowley,  the  head  medical  officer,  declared  that 
from  a  personal  examination  of  2000  children  he 
estimated  that  there  were  at  least  6000  children  in 
the  city  who  were  underfed.  This  means  that  11 
per  cent,  of  the  total  school  enrolment  were  suffer- 
ing from  malnutrition. 

PRELIMINARY  EXPERIMENT 

The  next  step  was  to  determine  the  probable 
effect  of  merely  feeding  these  children  without  alter- 
ing their  manner  of  living  in  any  other  way.  It  was 
important  to  find  out  whether  the  school  could  help 
matters  in  the  only  way  open  to  it — that  is  by  pro- 
viding food  of  an  assured  good  quality  and  served 
under  wholesome  and  pleasant  conditions,  it  being 
obviously  impossible  to  enter  the  homes  and  change 
the  construction  of  the  buildings  or  the  lives  of  their 
inmates. 

By  way  of  preliminary  experiment  it  was  decided 
to  feed  about  forty  of  the  most  needy  children  for 
three  months  with  two  daily  meals  carefully  planned 
to  meet  the  needs  of  growing  children.    Before  the 


48  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

meals  were  started,  the  children  were  weighed  three 
times  in  five  weeks  to  ascertain  their  average  rate 
of  growth.  They  were  fed  from  April  1 7  to  July  24 
and  during  that  time  they  were  weighed  and  meas- 
ured once  a  week  and  a  general  account  was  kept 
of  their  physical  condition. 

At  the  same  time  careful  records  were  kept  of 
the  growth  in  weight  and  height  of  a  group  of  69 
"  control "  children  who  were  of  the  same  age  and 
general  development  as  the  experiment  children 
and  of  the  same  social  class.  The  meals  at  school 
constituted  the  only  difference  between  the  two  sets 
of  children. 

GENERAL   CHARACTER   OF  THE   MEALS  AND  SERVICE 

Breakfast  and  dinner  were  provided  daily  except 
Sunday.  The  two  meals  were  so  planned  by  the 
school  doctors  and  the  director  of  domestic  science 
as  to  furnish  about  three-quarters  of  the  total  daily 
ration  required  by  the  school  child.  The  elements 
of  fat  and  tissue-building  protein  were  emphasized, 
as  it  was  in  these  expensive  elements  that  the  home 
meals  were  usually  lacking.  The  children  were  suf- 
fering not  so  much  from  a  general  lack  of  food  as 
from  "  protein  starvation." 


MEALS  IN  SCHOOLS  49 

The  menus  of  seventeen  dinners  were  made  out 
to  fulfil  the  special  requirements  of  the  case  and 
provided  such  a  variety  that  it  was  three  weeks 
before  any  given  meal  was  repeated.  The  break- 
fasts were  not  varied  from  the  general  scheme  of 
oatmeal,  milk  and  bread  and  butter  or  molasses. 

Among  the  seventeen  dinners,  four  were  made 
up  of  substantial  soups  and  boiled  or  baked  jam 
or  ginger  puddings  made  with  milk  and  served 
with  a  sweet  sauce ;  there  were  six  "  vegetarian  " 
dinners  made  without  meat,  though  butter  and  other 
animal  products  were  used  in  baked  puddings  and 
wholemeal  cakes.  There  were  six  dinners  with 
meat  and  vegetable  pie,  stew,  etc.  One  dinner  was 
especially  elaborate,  with  fish  and  potato  pie,  green 
peas  and  lemon  sauce,  blancmange  and  jam.  Bread 
was  served  with  all  the  meals  and  milk,  the  most 
valuable  source  of  protein  for  children,  was  used 
in  nearly  all.  These  menus  proved  so  satisfactory 
in  the  preliminary  test  that  they  are  in  permanent 
use  in  the  schools  of  Bradford. 

The  cost  of  the  breakfast,  including  preparation, 
was  2^2  cents ;  the  average  cost  of  the  dinners  was 
not  quite  3  cents. 

In  addition  to  this  care  in  the  choice  of  food,  it 

4 


50  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

was  served  in  such  a  way  that  the  whole  effect  should 
be  educative.  There  were  tablecloths  and  flowers 
on  the  table;  monitresses  were  chosen  from  the 
older  children  in  the  school  who  waited  on  small 
groups  of  ten  at  a  table.  These  monitresses  wore 
clean  white  aprons  and  sleeves,  and  received  their 
dinners  free  in  return  for  their  services.  Most  of 
these  children  had  never  had  any  experience  in  the 
etiquette  of  the  table  and  yet  there  was  little  trouble 
about  their  behavior,  "  for  children  soon  respond  to 
orderly  and  decent  surroundings." 

TRAINING  THE  APPETITES 

It  was  not  enough  that  the  meals  should  be 
nourishing  and  attractive  to  the  normal  palate.  The 
children  were  quite  unused  to  normal  food,  having 
subsisted  largely  on  canned  and  fried  food,  coffee 
and  baker's  bread.  They  had  seldom  tasted  milk. 
They  had  to  be  taught  to  like  the  new  tastes.  They 
were  watched  individually  from  the  first.  Dr. 
Crowley  says :  "  This  is  an  especially  important 
point,  and  if  it  be  not  attended  to  no  system  of  feed- 
ing can  give  fully  satisfactory  results.  With  a  little 
encouragement,  by  starting  with  small  helpings,  by 
not  at  first  unduly  pressing  what  is  distasteful  and 


MEALS  IN  SCHOOLS  51 

in  other  ways,  children  whom  at  first  it  is  difficult 
to  get  to  eat  can  soon  be  made  to  do  so.  These 
children  it  was  found  advisable  to  group  together 
at  one  table,  thus  permitting  of  ready  supervision." 
When  the  meals  started,  only  one  child  of  the 
entire  group  had  ever  before  eaten  oatmeal.  This 
was  a  Scotch  child.  The  first  day  thirteen  refused 
to  eat  it ;  by  the  next  day  curiosity  or  imitation  had 
conquered  all  but  two,  and  after  that  all  ate  with 
apparent  enjoyment  and  there  was  much  complain- 
ing when  the  oatmeal  was  omitted  for  variation. 
New  dishes  in  the  dinners  were  adopted  in  the  same 
way. 

RESULTS 

Certain  good  results  of  the  experiment  were 
apparent  to  all.  The  children  brightened  up,  their 
general  carriage  changed  from  one  of  listless  de- 
pression to  alert  interest.  The  teachers  reported  a 
corresponding  improvement  in  the  lessons. 

Aside  from  these  results  that  cannot  be  expressed 
in  quantitative  form,  the  actual  gains  in  weight  are 
shown  in  graphic  form  in  the  following  diagram  in 
which  the  fluctuations  in  weight  of  the  children 
receiving  meals  are  shown  by  the  solid  line  and  the 
total  gain  of  the  "  control  group,"  by  the  dotted  line. 


52 


SCHOOL  FEEDING 


The  results  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 
I.  Before  the  meals  began  the  average  weekly 
rate  of  growth  during  five  weeks  was  a  little  over 


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Diagram  showiag  average  individual  increase  in  weight  of  children  in  Bradford  school 
feeding  experiment  during  twenty-five  weeks.  Solid  line  shows  average  increases  and  decrease* 
of  children  receiving  meals.  Dotted  line  shows  average  increase  of  control  children  not  receiv- 
ing meals.    (Adapted  from  Crowley.) 

an  ounce  apiece.  This  was  about  the  average  weekly 
gain  of  the  control  children  during  the  experiment, 
and  represents  a  yearly  gain  of  three  pounds  and 
five  ounces. 


MEALS  IN  SCHOOLS  53 

2.  The  children  who  were  fed  gained  on  an  aver- 
age of  six  ounces  a  week  in  the  first  four  weeks 
of  the  experiment.  The  greatest  gain  came  in  the 
first  week,  when  the  average  was  one  pound  and 
four  ounces.  After  this  sudden  rise  the  weights 
remained  nearly  stationary  for  a  week.  The  weekly 
gains  of  the  third  and  fourth  weeks  were  5J4  and 
4^2  ounces. 

3.  During  a  holiday  of  eleven  days,  from  May  16 
to  May  27,  after  four  weeks  of  feeding,  the  chil- 
dren were  not  fed,  with  the  result  that  they  lost  a 
pound  apiece  in  weight,  which  it  took  two  weeks 
to  regain. 

4.  During  this  same  holiday  the  control  children, 
relieved  from  the  strain  of  school  work,  gained  on 
an  average  of  eight  ounces  apiece,  as  opposed  to  a 
gain  of  J4  ounce  in  the  next  eleven  days  after  the 
vacation.    (These  variations  not  shown  in  chart.) 

5.  The  net  average  gain  of  the  experiment  chil- 
dren from  the  beginning  of  the  feeding  till  the  end 
was  two  pounds  and  eight  ounces. 

6.  The  total  average  gain  of  the  control  children 
during  the  same  period  was  one  pound  and  four 
ounces. 

7.  At  the  end  of  the  summer  holidays  all  the 


54  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

children  were  about  the  same  again.  An  increase 
in  weight  was  again  shown  in  the  case  of  the  control 
children,  who  gained  at  the  rate  oi  2l/2  ounces  a 
week  instead  of  one  ounce. 

This  experiment  showed  that  the  single  factor  of 
good  food  could  do  much  even  while  other  con- 
ditions hostile  to  healthy  development  remained  un- 
changed. Without  hesitation,  therefore,  the  school 
authorities  made  plans  for  the  development  of  meals 
on  a  much  larger  scale. 

PRESENT    ORGANIZATION    OF    SCHOOL    CANTEENS   IN 
BRADFORD 

To-day  the  equipment  for  school  meals  in  Brad- 
ford is  probably  the  finest  in  the  world.  The  work 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  Canteen  Committee,  which  is 
a  sub-committee  of  the  city  school  board,  and  com- 
prises head  teachers,  medical  inspectors,  visiting 
nurses,  and  attendance  officers. 

SELECTION  OF  CHILDREN 

All  the  children  may  attend  the  meals,  but  special 
attention  is  given  to  those  who  are  to  receive  the 
meals  free.  As  a  rule  the  teachers  recommend  chil- 
dren from  their  classes  who  they  think  are  in  need 


MEALS  IN  SCHOOLS  55 

of  food.  Sometimes  the  parents  apply  to  the  head 
teachers  directly.  In  any  case  where  free  meals 
are  asked  for,  the  child  is  immediately  given  food, 
while  the  Canteen  Committee  makes  careful  inves- 
tigation of  home  conditions,  and  on  the  basis  of 
what  is  found,  determines  whether  the  parent  shall 
be  required  to  pay  the  cost  of  the  meal  in  full  or 
partially,  or  whether  the  meals  are  to  be  given  free.1 

THE  POVERTY  SCALE 

Wherever  it  is  found  that  the  total  weekly  in- 
come of  a  family  falls  below  75  cents  per  head  after 
the  rent  is  deducted,  the  children  are  considered 
eligible  for  the  free  list.  Exceptions  are  made  to 
this  rule,  and  the  scale  is  raised  in  the  case  of  a 
small  family,  where  the  expenses  are  proportionately 
heavier  than  in  a  larger  one,  and  in  cases  where 
there  is  illness  or  irregular  employment. 

Children  of  all  social  grades  attend  the  meals, 
and  pay  various  prices  for  them,  anywhere  from 
threepence  to  halfpenny,  according  to  their  ability. 
But  no  distinction  whatever  is  made  between  those 
who  pay,  and  those  who  do  not,  and  the  children 
themselves  are  entirely  unaware  of  the  differences. 

1  Appendix  B 


56  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

PREPARATION  AND  SERVICE 

The  preparation  of  the  meals  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  a  man  who  is  a  professionally  trained 
chemist,  as  well  as  a  first  class  cook.  He  has  five 
helpers,  and  together  they  prepare  the  meals  at  one 
central  kitchen  where  there  are  facilities  for  prepar- 
ing 10,000  meals  a  day.  Only  the  most  approved 
modern  appliances  are  used,  and  there  is  no  waste 
either  of  time  or  materials  in  the  Bradford  kitchen. 
There  are  large  hundred  gallon  steam- jacketed 
boilers,  porcelain  baths  for  washing  vegetables, 
potato  peelers,  dish  washers,  and  other  labor-saving 
devices.  The  city  bakes  its  own  bread  in  large  steam 
ovens,  heated  like  the  other  stoves  by  the  same 
boiler  that  is  used  in  the  heating  of  the  school  baths 
nearby.  This  means  that  the  cooking  of  the  food 
does  not  cost  a  penny  extra. 

COST  OF  THE  MEALS  IN  BRADFORD 

The  initial  cost  of  the  equipment  described  above 
was  $20,000.  During  the  year  1908-09  the  total 
expenditure  for  the  meals  was  $39,600,  including 
the  salaries  for  cooks,  caretakers,  and  supervisors, 
the  up-keep  of  the  equipment,  the  cost  of  administra- 


MEALS  IN  SCHOOLS  57 

tion  and  the  food.  In  this  year  about  a  million 
meals  were  served,  a  quarter  of  them  being  break- 
fasts. The  total  cost  of  a  dinner  was  3  cents,  the 
food  costing  2  and  the  administration  1  cent.  In 
all  about  5,500  children  attended  the  meals  some- 
time during  the  year,  while  the  average  daily  attend- 
ance summer  and  winter  was  2,700.  Of  these  a 
daily  average  of  about  240  children  paid  either  the 
whole  cost  of  the  meal  or  part  of  it. 

EDUCATIONAL  FEATURES  OF  THE  MEALS  AND  SOME 
OTHER  THINGS 

The  most  important  educational  feature  of  the 
meals  is  that  they  tend  to  raise  the  standard  of  food 
above  that  found  in  the  children's  homes.  This  is 
true  not  only  of  the  food  itself,  but  of  the  way  the 
meals  are  served. 

The  dining  halls  are  painted  in  fresh,  light  colors. 
Tablecloths  and  napkins  are  provided  and  the  chil- 
dren are  encouraged  to  bring  flowers  and  plants  for 
decoration.  The  teachers  eat  with  the  children,  and 
are  paid  for  the  service  of  supervision  for  which 
they  volunteer. 

Children  from  the  older  classes,  particularly  from 
classes  in  domestic  economy,  wait  on  the  table.  The 


58  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

aprons  and  sleeves  worn  by  the  "  waiters  "  are  made 
and  mended  by  children  in  the  sewing  classes. 

The  children  must  wash  their  hands  and  faces 
before  each  meal  and  other  lessons  in  practical 
hygiene  and  cleanliness  are  given  at  the  same  time. 

The  food  values  and  the  cost  of  food  are  taught 
to  some  of  the  older  children,  but  this  work  is  not 
confined  to  the  school.  Members  of  the  Canteen 
Committee  visit  the  homes  and  talk  to  the  mothers 
about  their  children's  food  and  health  and  encourage 
them  to  visit  the  dining  rooms  at  meal  time.  The 
Education  Committee  has  also  published  little 
pamphlets  which  are  distributed  among  the  mothers 
giving  the  recipes  of  the  dinners  used  at  school, 
with  the  cost  of  the  ingredients,  and  directions  for 
preparing  them  for  families  of  seven. 

So  far  the  results  reported  have  been  favorable, 
not  only  as  regard  the  children's  health  and  physical 
development,  but  their  manners  and  conduct  as  well. 
When  asked  after  one  year  if  in  general  and  in  any 
or  all  of  these  particulars  the  teachers  had  seen  an 
improvement,  answers  were  forthcoming  from  214 
teachers  as  follows : 

One  said  the  improvement  was  physical  only,  not  mental; 
Thirty-seven  said  they  had  not  had  enough  experience  to 
give  an  opinion; 


CHARGING   OVEN.       HEAT    SUPPLIED    BY    SCHOOL    BATH    FURNACE.       BRADFORD. 
ENGLAND 


INTERIOR     OF     MOTOR     WAGON.         SHOWING    DEVICES    FOR     RETAINING     HEAT. 
BRADFORD,    ENGLAND 


MEALS  IN  SCHOOLS  59 

Thirty-three  thought  no   improvement  was  visible;    and 
One  hundred  and  forty-three  reported  that  the  meals  had 
improved  the  capacity  of  the  children. 

The  work  with  the  parents  has  been  remarkably 
successful.  Miss  Margaret  MacMillan,  the  well- 
known  English  educator,  in  a  lecture  in  New 
York  City  in  191 1  asserted  that  the  institution 
of  school  feeding  has  "  enormously  increased  the 
responsibility  of  parents,  because  they  are  profoundly 
impressed  with  the  need  of  studying  their  own  chil- 
dren, when  they  learn  things  about  them  they  have 
never  thought  of  before."  For  example,  a  mother 
brought  her  little  girl  to  the  School  Clinic  for  ex- 
amination. The  doctor  found  nothing  the  matter 
and  inquired  why  she  had  brought  her  and  if  she  had 
noticed  anything  wrong.  The  mother  said,  "  Oh 
no,  I  just  wanted  an  opinion."  Such  a  thing  as  a 
woman  seeking  an  opinion  about  her  child  was 
unheard  of  ten  years  ago,  while  it  is  now  quite 
common. 

Another  account  of  the  work  in  Bradford  closes 
with  this  significant  statement :  "  The  doctrine  that 
child  feeding  would  undermine  parental  responsi- 
bility has  received  a  rude  shock,  as  scores  of  letters 
in  our  possession  show  that  when  circumstances 
improve,  parents  are  the  first  to  report  this  to  the 


60  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

committee,  are  often  most  grateful  for  what  has 
been  done  for  them,  and  are  anxious  to  make  way 
for  the  children  of  those  less  fortunate  than  them- 
selves." 

PRESENT  EXTENT  AND  STATUS  OF  SCHOOL  MEALS  IN 
ENGLAND 

Beginning  with  the  spring  of  1909,  annual  re- 
ports have  been  issued  by  the  Board  of  Education 
on  the  workings  of  the  Meals  Act  from  the  time  of 
its  passage.  The  first  report,  covering  the  period 
through  March,  1909,  showed  that  in  113  places, 
out  of  a  possible  328,  the  Act  had  been  put  into 
operation.  Five  places  were  not  heard  from  and 
in  210  places  the  local  authorities  stated  either  that 
there  was  no  need  or  that  voluntary  organizations 
were  sufficient  to  meet  it.  Many  of  these  organiza- 
tions receive  substantial  support  from  the  city, 
although  not  through  the  medium  of  the  school  bud- 
get. If  we  include  all  forms  of  organizations,  it 
may  be  fairly  said  that  there  are  not  fewer  than 
200  towns  in  England  and  Wales  where  meals  of 
some  kind  are  served  at  school.  With  these  differ- 
ences in  mind  the  experience  in  Bradford  may  be 
regarded  as  typical  of  what  is  taking  place  else- 


MEALS  IN  SCHOOLS  61 

where  in  England  though  not  perhaps  on  such  an 
elaborate  scale. 

Some  idea  of  the  rapidity  with  which  the  organ- 
ization of  school  canteens  progresses  may  be  had 
from  the  following  figures  taken  from  the  reports 
of  the  Board  of  Education  referred  to  above. 

By  the  end  of  the  year  following  the  passage  of 
the  Act,  forty-one  Local  Educational  Authorities 
had  received  permission  from  the  central  board  to 
use  school  money  to  pay  for  the  food.  In  the  year 
1 907- 1 908,  eighty-five  authorities  received  permis- 
sion and  during  the  school  year  1909-19 10,  their 
number  was  raised  to  ninety-six,  and  in  1910-1911 
to  one  hundred  and  twenty-three. 

So  far  as  returns  were  available  as  to  the  number 
of  children  fed,  it  appears  that  in  1 907-1 908,  in 
fifty-six  places  excluding  London,  44,000  children 
(in  round  numbers)  attended  meals  and  among 
them  consumed  about  3,000,000  meals.  In  1908- 
1909  about  118,000  children  in  109  places  visited 
canteens  and  consumed  over  9,600,000  meals.  In 
1909-1910,  119,998  children  in  122  places  con- 
sumed between  them  over  8,760,000  meals,  again 
excluding  London. 


62 


SCHOOL  FEEDING 


If  we  add  to  the  figures  already  given  the  returns 
from  London  for  these  years,  we  have  the  following 
grand  totals  for  England  and  Wales: 

Table  2.  Number  of  Children  Attending  Meals  and  Num- 
ber of  Meals  Served  in  Years  from  1907-08  to  Dec,  1910 


Year 

England  and  Wales 
Excluding  London 

London 

Total 

No.  Fed 

No.  Meals 

No.  Fed 

No.  Meals 

No.  Fed 

No.  Meals 

1907-08 
1908-09 
1909-10 
1910- 

44.213 

117.875 

19.998 

13.084 

2,751,326 
9,671.789 
8,766,635 
7,160,201 

37.979 

39.632 

55.000* 

115.000* 

143.962 

166,766 

7,335.609 

9.138,75s 

82,192 

157.507 

174.998* 

228,085* 

2,895,288 

9.838,555 

16,102,244 

16,298,956 

♦Estimates  only,  based  on  average  number  of  meals  per  child  consumed 
in  preceding  years. 

London  did  not  avail  herself  of  Section  3  of  the 
Act  until  January,  1909.  After  this  date  the  can- 
teen service  was  increased  enormously  till,  during 
the  single  week  ending  March  11,  1910,  55,554 
children  attended  the  meals  in  842  centres,  and  be- 
tween March  and  December,  19 10,  a  total  number 
of  over  9,000,000  meals  was  consumed. 


MEALS  DURING  VACATIONS 

In  London  and  in  forty-four  other  places  the 
meals  are  served  every  school  day,  and  during  the 
school  holidays.     In  thirty-four  places  provision  is 


MEALS  IN  SCHOOLS  63 

made  for  the  meals  all  the  year  round,  even  though 
the  attendance  is  somewhat  smaller  in  the  summer. 
The  reason  for  this  practice  is  because  experiments 
have  shown  that  the  children  tend  to  lose  weight 
during  the  holidays  when  the  school  meals  cease. 

FINANCIAL  SUMMARY 

There  are  four  different  sources  for  the  money 
used  in  support  of  the  school  canteens.  First  there 
is  the  amount  spent  on  equipment  and  service.  This 
is  drawn  from  the  local  taxes,  the  amount  being 
voted  on  by  the  City  Council  as  part  of  the  Educa- 
tional Budget.  Second,  there  is  the  local  tax  (at 
the  rate  of  J^d.  on  the  pound)  specially  levied  to 
cover  the  cost  of  food.  This  is  first  voted  on  by  the 
City  Council  but  must  be  submitted  for  approval 
to  the  National  Board  of  Education  before  it  may 
be  used.  The  third  source  of  funds  is  in  voluntary 
contributions,  which  are  mainly  used  to  pay  for  food. 
Finally  there  is  the  money  collected  from  parents, 
either  in  payment  for  meal  tickets,  or  as  a  civil  debt 
in  cases  where  they  have  neglected  to  pay. 

The  total  amount  spent  on  school  canteens  in 
112  towns  of  England  and  Wales  during  the  years 


64  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

1908-1909,  and  1 909-1 9 10,  is  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying table,  which  indicates  also  the  sources  of 
the  funds  used. 

Table  3.  Provision  of  Meals  in  English  Schools  Financial 
Summary,  1908-1911 

1908-09       1909-10      1910-11 

1.  Money  raised  by  local  taxes  for 

food $205,445    $408,640    $448,045 

2.  Expenditure  on  equipment  and 

service    132,175      218,220      256,330 

3.  Total   cost   to   local   taxes    for 

food    and    service    (from    1 

and  2)    337,620      626,860      704,375 

4.  Expenditure  on  administration.     24,045        43,665        63,465 

5.  Total    expenditure    from    local 

taxes   361,665      670,525      767,840 

6.  Money   provided    by   voluntary 

contributions    89,155        49,065        37,685 

7.  Money  contributed  by  or  recov- 

ered from  parents   1,675         4,530         6,850 

8.  Total  expenditure  on  meals  (5 

and  6)    450,820     680,455      748,910 

In  this  table  the  amount  contributed  by  or  recov- 
ered from  parents  is  small  for  the  reason  that  the 
meals  have  so  far  served  the  needs  of  only  the 
poorest  children  whose  parents,  as  shown  by  the 
use  of  the  "  Poverty  Scale,"  are  actually  unable  to 
pay  even  the  bare  cost  of  the  food-stuffs.  The 
significance  of  this  is  emphasized  by  the  considera- 


MEALS  IN  SCHOOLS  65 

tion  of  the  fact  that  the  average  price  asked  for  a 
dinner  is  3  cents  and  for  a  breakfast  2  cents. 

The  restriction  imposed  by  law  on  the  amount 
that  may  be  spent  for  food  has  caused  considerable 
trouble,  because  in  several  places  it  has  been  found 
absolutely  impossible  to  keep  within  the  halfpenny 
limit.  For  example,  in  Bradford  in  1 908-1 909, 
$22,650  was  spent  by  the  school  for  food  instead  of 
$14,425,  which  was  the  amount  covered  by  a  y26.. 
tax.  This  was  partly  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
meals  were  continued  during  the  summer  months, 
and  because,  in  addition  to  the  dinners,  it  was  found 
necessary  to  have  breakfasts  at  a  time  when  there 
was  an  unusual  amount  of  unemployment.  An  at- 
tempt is  now  being  made  to  remove  this  restriction, 
which  is  felt  to  be  illogical  and  not  in  keeping  with 
the  spirit  of  the  Act,  which  was  designed  to  benefit 
as  large  a  number  of  children  as  possible  and  at 
least  to  provide  for  all  children  in  actual  want. 

The  amounts  provided  by  voluntary  contri- 
butions show  a  tendency  to  decrease  from  year 
to  year,  as  the  work  becomes  more  and  more  recog- 
nized as  part  of  the  school  responsibility.  But  this 
does  not  imply  a  lack  of  public  interest,  since  this 
is  being  shown  in  other  ways,  especially  by  the  en- 
5 


66  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

thusiastic  volunteer  service  of  Canteen  Committees 
in  doing  follow-up  work  with  the  parents  and  chil- 
dren. 

FURTHER  LEGISLATION  AFFECTING  THE  CANTEEN 
SERVICE  AND  RESULTS  SO  FAR 

The  Provision  of  Meals  Act  was  the  first  of  a 
series  of  legislative  measures  passed  in  favor  of 
national  conservation  and  growing  out  of  the  fear 
of  national  deterioration.  The  most  important  of 
the  laws  which  were  passed  later  and  have  affected 
the  canteen  service  was  the  Education  Act  of  1907, 
making  Medical  Inspection  compulsory  in  the 
schools  throughout  England.  The  National  Board 
of  Education  almost  at  once  placed  the  general 
supervision  of  the  Meals  Service  in  the  hands  of 
their  Medical  Department  and  beginning  with  19 10, 
the  annual  report  has  been  made  by  the  Chief 
Medical  Officer. 

This  Act  requires  that  an  account  be  kept  of  the 
nutrition  of  each  child  and  that  this  be  made  the 
basis  of  the  general  report  on  his  physical  condition. 
In  most  places  the  medical  inspector  is  a  member 
of  the  committee  in  charge  of  the  canteen  work,  and 
frequently  it  is  he  who  makes  the  final  decision  of 
whether  or  not  a  child  is  to  receive  free  meals. 


FILLING  FOOD  VESSELS  WITH  SOUP  AND  RICE  PUDDING.       BRADFORD,  ENGLAND 


CUTT     )G    BREAD   AND   MINCING    PARSLEY.      BRADFORD,    ENGLAND 


MEALS  IN  SCHOOLS  67 

In  the  spring  of  1909  an  amendment  was  pro- 
posed to  the  original  Meals  Act  which  was  designed 
to  place  the  final  responsibility  of  saying  whether 
or  not  a  child  is  underfed  on  the  medical  inspector, 
who  might  be  required  at  any  time  by  the  school 
board  to  examine  a  child  for  this  purpose.  The 
amendment  further  provides  that  wherever  a  child 
should  be  found  to  be  underfed,  it  should  be  the  duty 
of  the  school  authorities  to  see  that  it  was  fed. 

SCHOOL  MEALS  IN  SCOTLAND 

This  amending  bill  was  defeated  in  Parliament. 
If  passed  it  would  have  virtually  made  compulsory 
the  provision  of  meals  by  the  educational  author- 
ities. In  its  terms  it  resembles  closely  Section  6  of 
the  Education  Act  passed  in  Scotland  in  1908 
whereby  medical  inspection  is  made  compulsory  and 
the  school  board  in  any  town  is  obliged  to  see  that 
children  are  fed  who  are  declared  by  medical  in- 
spection or  otherwise  to  be  "  unable  by  reason  of 
lack  of  food  to  take  full  advantage  of  the  education 
provided."  The  school  board  may  make  immediate 
provision  of  food  but  must  interview  the  parents 
as  soon  as  possible  and  find  out  why  the  child  is 
not  fed  properly.    Then  if  it  is  found  that  it  is  be- 


68  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

cause  of  the  poverty  or  ill  health  of  the  parents, 
the  school  may  provide  meals  for  the  child  as  long 
as  it  is  necessary  during  the  school  year.  Where 
the  case  shows  wilful  neglect  or  cruelty  the  cost 
of  the  meals  is  collected  summarily  as  an  "  alimen- 
tary debt,"  and  the  parent  may  be  punished  under 
the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Children  Act. 

FEEDING   AS   A   PREVENTIVE   MEASURE 

Partly  because  of  the  excellent  results  obtained 
in  the  open  air  2  schools  for  tuberculous  and  anaemic 
children,  where  full  regular  meals  form  an  impor- 
tant and  prominent  part  of  the  treatment,  British 
school  physicians  are  now  proposing  that  children 
showing  tuberculous  or  anaemic  tendencies  shall  be 
given  meals  at  school  as  a  preventive  measure.  In 
this  connection,  Dr.  Lambert  of  Brighton  suggests 
that  "  it  is  frequently  advisable  to  recommend  all 
members  of  a  family  known  to  be  tuberculous,  irre- 
spective of  their  stature."  3 

In  many  places,  the  medical  inspectors  have  begun 
keeping  records  of  the  physical  development  of  the 
children  from  year  to  year.    The  records  thus  made 

'  Ayres,  Leonard  P.,  Open  Air  Schools. 
•Kelynack,  T.  N.,  Medical  Examination  of  Schools  and 
Scholars. 


MEALS  IN  SCHOOLS  69 

are  turned  over  to  the  British  Association  for 
Anthropometric  Investigation,  whose  aim  is  to  have 
available  at  any  time  material  showing  the  exact 
physical  condition  of  the  nation.4  Special  attention 
is  given  to  the  children  who  are  underfed  and  in 
attendance  at  the  school  meals,  as  this  is  a  convenient 
and  reliable  method  of  testing  the  value  of  the 
canteens. 

The  following  experiment  in  Northampton,  which 
corroborates  the  experience  of  Bradford,  shows  what 
may  be  expected  from  school  meals.  During  a 
period  of  fourteen  weeks,  forty-four  children  were 
given  breakfast  and  supper,  and  weighed  each  week. 
At  the  beginning  of  this  time  they  weighed  on  an 
average  nearly  four  pounds  less  than  normal  for 
their  ages.  At  the  end  of  the  period  they  had  gained 
so  that  they  weighed  only  two  pounds  less  than 
normal,  while  forty  control  children,  who  had  not 
been  fed,  were  as  much  below  weight  as  before. 

Where  such  measurements  of  weight  have  not 
been  made,  bodily  improvement  has  been  shown  in 
other  ways.  From  Halifax  comes  the  report  that 
the  meals  have  "  increased  vitality,  both  as  regards 

4  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Anthropometric  Investigation 
in  the  British  Isles.  London,  1909,  The  Royal  Anthrop. 
Institution. 


70  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

work  and  play,"  and  from  Bristol  that  "  In  a  fort- 
night after  the  commencement  of  the  free  dinners 
to  necessitous  children,  the  improvement  in  their 
physical  condition  became  quite  apparent." 

One  of  the  chief  reasons  for  having  the  canteens 
was  that  certain  children  were  found  to  be  unfitted 
to  do  mental  work  properly  because  of  their  physical 
weakness.  Therefore  it  is  significant  that  so  far 
the  reports  show  that  the  meals  have  had  a  good 
effect  on  the  children's  mental  ability  as  well  as  on 
their  bodies.  This  has  been  particularly  noticeable 
in  the  case  of  those  distinctly  underfed.  Where  the 
meals  have  been  given  as  a  relief  from  temporary 
distress,  the  results  have  not  been  appreciable,  as 
they  have  simply  maintained  the  children's  normal 
efficiency.  A  few  quotations  from  the  official  re- 
ports will  illustrate  the  general  tenor  of  opinion. 

Birkenhead :  "  The  general  testimony  of  the  head 
teachers  of  the  various  schools  ...  is  that  the  chil- 
dren were  brighter,  more  regular,  and  better  fitted 
for  their  work." 

Birmingham  (Breakfasts)  :  "  Beyond  question  a 
distinct  improvement  has  taken  place  in  the  ability 
of  the  children  to  take  full  advantage  of  the  educa- 
tion given." 

Bristol :    "  The  children's  general  appearance  is 


MEALS  IN  SCHOOLS  71 

brighter,  and  they  enter  into  their  work  with  more 
zest." 

Wallesey :  "  Most  of  the  teachers  report  that 
the  children  show  an  increased  interest  and  a  greater 
ability  in  their  work ;  and  they  also  note  an  improve- 
ment in  the  regularity  of  the  attendance.  One 
teacher  says :  *  In  several  cases  the  dull,  tired,  and 
frequently  bored  look  about  the  children  has  dis- 
appeared, giving  place  to  a  brighter  manner  and 
keener  interest  in  their  work.'  " 

Only  a  few  exceptions  to  this  general  opinion 
as  to  the  effect  of  the  meals  on  the  learning  ability 
of  the  children  were  found.  Thus,  one  teacher 
in  Gillingham  stated  that  "  the  increase  in  ability 
was  very  slight,"  and  in  Coventry  it  was  reported 
that  many  cases  showed  no  apparent  difference  in 
capacity. 

children's  care  committees 

Just  as  it  has  been  found  that  for  medical  in- 
spection to  be  effective,  a  great  deal  of  "  follow-up  " 
work  must  be  done  with  parents  and  children,  so 
it  has  been  with  school  meals.  To  make  them 
effective  and  to  really  strike  at  the  root  of  mal- 
nutrition with  its  complex  causes,  much  more  must 
be  done  than  merely  feeding  the  children  once  a 
day.     Parents  must  be  visited,  shown  what  good 


72  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

food  is,  and  taught  and  urged  to  spend  what  they 
have  wisely;  bad  sleeping  habits  must  be  broken 
up,  and  the  aversion  to  fresh  air  combated,  and 
child  labor  discovered  and  stopped;  finally  the  little 
children  not  yet  going  to  school  must  be  cared  for 
if  they  are  not  to  be  unfitted  by  malnutrition  for 
their  future  work. 

To  do  all  this  is  so  obviously  beyond  the  limit  of 
the  teachers'  time  and  strength  that  Children's  Care 
Committees  have  been  established  in  many  English 
towns.  These  are  sub-committees  of  the  local  school 
board  and  the  members  are  elected  from  managers 
(superintendents),  principals,  and  volunteer  laymen. 
They  have  charge  of  all  the  extra-academic  activ- 
ities of  the  school,  especially  those  relating  to 
physical  welfare.  While  not  obligatory,  the  forma- 
tion of  these  committees  is  strongly  urged  by  the 
Medical  Inspection  Act  of  1907. 

In  London,  where  the  committees  in  charge  of 
the  meals  were  at  first  merely  "  feeding  committees," 
they  were  reorganized  on  the  larger  basis  of 
"  Care "  committees,  after  two  years'  experience 
with  the  more  limited  activity.  The  handbook  pub- 
lished by  the  London  County  Council  for  the  use  of 
the  thousand  committees  shows  a  wide  range  of 


MEALS  IN  SCHOOLS  73 

duties  extending  beyond  the  school  into  the  chil- 
dren's homes,  into  their  early  childhood;  into  the 
terms  and  conditions  of  their  industrial  life,  after 
school  years. 

Members  of  the  Care  Committees  look  up  the 
records  of  the  children  applying  for  free  meals, 
investigate  home  conditions,  talk  to  parents,  and 
give  help  and  advice  about  their  children.  Beside 
this  they  supervise  the  dietaries  in  use  at  the  can- 
teens, appoint  the  people  who  cook  and  serve,  and 
superintend  the  entire  service  of  the  meals.  One 
important  part  of  their  work  is  the  attention  to 
individual  children  at  the  table,  to  insure  that  each 
child  gets  enough  and  is  benefited  according  to  his 
particular  need.  It  seems  that,  as  a  rule,  about  ten 
per  cent,  of  the  children  require  this  special  atten- 
tion, to  be  induced  to  eat  the  food,  or  even  to  attend 
the  meals  at  all,  while  these  are  often  the  very  ones 
most  in  need. 

Other  good  results  of  the  individual  work  done 
by  these  committees  was  reported  from  Bristol, 
where  it  was  found  since  the  meals  have  been  served 
at  school  "  the  parents  have  fallen  in  more  readily 
with  medical  inspection,  and  the  teachers  have  less 
trouble  now  in  securing  cleanliness." 


74  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

MANNERS  AND   CONDUCT   IMPROVED   BY    MEALS 

In  general  the  teachers  report  a  marked  improve- 
ment in  the  manners  and  conduct  of  the  children, 
especially  in  places  where  the  meals  are  served  in 
special  dining-rooms  with  personal  supervision  from 
the  teachers  or  members  of  the  Care  Committees. 
One  Head  Teacher  in  Bath  describes  the  meals  as 
"  Practical  lessons  in  unselfishness,  cleanliness  and 
self  help."  A  characteristic  report  comes  from 
Gorton,  where  "  in  many  cases  the  children  never 
sit  at  table  when  having  meal  at  home.  The  whole- 
some influence  of  preparing  for  the  meals — by  wash- 
ing hands  and  faces,  singing  or  saying  grace  to- 
gether, sitting  at  table  with  others  and  talking  to 
them  quietly,  learning  to  handle  knife  and  fork  or 
spoon,  and  to  eat  in  seemly  fashion — all  this  has 
had  its  due  effect  which  has  extended  beyond  the 
meals*  centre  itself  to  the  school,  the  home,  and  even 
to  the  street." 

FEEDING    OF    YOUNGER    CHILDREN,    BEFORE    SCHOOL 

AGE 

Beside  this  provision  for  children  of  the  compul- 
sory school  age,  England  is  attacking  the  problem 
of  food  at  an  earlier  stage  and  day  nurseries  on  the 


MEALS  IN  SCHOOLS  75 

pattern  of  the  French  Creches  are  being  established 
widely.  Special  attention  is  paid  to  the  proper  feed- 
ing of  the  children  sent  there. 

In  1908,  Parliament  passed  the  "  Children's 
Charter/'  which  includes  in  a  codified  and  revised 
form  all  previous  legislation  in  regard  to  children, 
with  many  new  features.  Section  12  provides  for 
the  prosecution  of  all  people  who  fail  through  their 
own  fault  to  provide  sufficient  food  for  the  children 
under  their  charge.  In  this  section  "  wilful  neg- 
lect "  includes  the  failure  on  the  part  of  the  parent 
or  guardian  to  obtain  needed  help  from  govern- 
mental sources. 

In  19 10  a  law  was  passed  which,  while  not  deal- 
ing directly  with  children  or  with  the  educational 
system,  is  destined  to  remove  one  prolific  source  of 
malnutrition.  This  was  the  Board  of  Trades  Law, 
which  provides  for  the  fixing  of  a  minimum  wage 
in  certain  low  grade  industries.  The  agitation  for 
this  law  began  some  twenty  years  ago  while  a 
school  fee  was  still  charged,  and  many  women 
chain-makers,  the  most  unprotected  class  of  wage- 
workers,  were  being  fined  for  not  sending  their 
children  to  school.  These  women  apparently  had 
two  alternatives:  to  pay  the  school  fee,  and  send 


76  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

their  children  to  school,  or  to  keep  them  home  and 
pay  the  fine  imposed  under  the  Truancy  Law.  The 
condition  of  these  women  was  relieved  but  slightly 
by  the  removal  of  the  school  fee,  as  their  wages  re- 
mained entirely  out  of  proportion  with  the  increas- 
ing cost  of  living,  and  the  children  were  often  sent 
hungry  to  school.  The  new  law,  though  rudimen- 
tary in  its  implications,  is  the  first  step  toward  an 
adjustment  of  wages  that  may  end  in  abolishing  the 
need  for  free  meals. 

By  these  legislative  measures — providing  for 
school  meals,  as  a  part  of  the  regular  school  system, 
for  the  examination  and  registration  of  the  nu- 
tritional condition  of  all  school  children,  for  special 
committees  to  do  follow-up  work  and  home  visiting 
in  connection  with  the  meals,  for  a  means  of  dealing 
legally  with  persons  who  neglect  the  feeding  of 
children  in  their  care,  and  finally  for  the  legal  ad- 
justment of  a  minimum  rate  of  wages  above  the 
starvation  line,  England  is  in  a  fair  way  to  eliminate 
malnutrition  from  her  list  of  school  problems,  and 
thereby  from  the  list  of  obstacles  in  the  way  of  a 
healthy  national  life. 


IV 

THE    CANTINES    SCOLAIRES   OF    FRANCE 

After   bread,    education    is    the   first   need    of    a   people. 

— Danton. 

In  1849,  the  battalion  of  the  National  Guard 
in  the  second  district  in  Paris  found  that  they  had 
a  surplus  in  their  treasury  for  which  they  had  no 
special  use.  All  agreed  that  it  must  be  used  to  some 
good  purpose — to  benefit  the  community  if  possible. 
The  good  fellows,  many  of  them  fathers,  most  of 
them  poor  men,  remembered  that  their  neighbors' 
children  were  often  unable  to  go  to  school  because 
they  had  no  decent  clothes  or  shoes.  Their  parents 
could  not  give  them  the  extra  food  necessary  for  the 
extra  work,  far  less  buy  for  them  the  expensive 
books.  Here  then  was  a  use  for  the  guardsmen's 
money.  They  turned  it  over  to  the  district  author- 
ities to  form  the  nucleus  of  a  "  caisse  des  ecoles," 
a  school  fund  that  was  to  help  poor  children  get  a 
schooling. 

The  people  of  the  district  became  interested; 
other  sums  were  added,  and  the  Caisse  became  an 
important  affair  in  that  section.     In  1862  another 

77 


78  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

district  adopted  the  plan,  and  in  1867  its  value  had 
become  so  apparent  as  to  attract  the  attention  of  the 
Minister  of  Public  Education.  The  school  law 
passed  that  year  contained  a  section  authorizing  the 
establishment  of  School  Funds  in  every  commune 
in  France.    The  section  ran  as  follows: 

The  municipal  council,  with  the  approval  of  the  prefect, 
may  establish,  in  any  commune,  a  school  fund  destined  to 
encourage,  and  facilitate  school  attendance,  by  rewards  and 
help  given  to  the  industrious  and  poor  pupils. 

The  revenues  for  this  fund  shall  come  from  voluntary 
gifts,  and  subventions  from  the  commune,  department,  or 
state. 

Several  communes  may  combine  in  forming  and  support- 
ing such  a  fund. 

The  collection  of  this  fund  shall  be  made  gratuitously  by 
the  teacher. 

In  1882,  when  primary  education  was  made  com- 
pulsory, Article  XVIII  of  the  law  enacted  that : 

The  school  fund  instituted  by  Article  XV  of  the  Law  of 
April  10,  1867,  shall  be  established  in  all  the  communes. 

The  Caisses  des  fecoles  were  thus  made  com- 
pulsory and  were  put  under  statutory  obligation  to 
share  in  the  medical  inspection,  school  lunches,  pro- 
vision for  holidays,  excursions,  vacation  schools, 


CANTINES  SCOLAIRES  OF  FRANCE      79 

savings  banks,  and  whatever  extra  services  the 
school  authorities  might  institute  for  physical  or 
other  welfare  of  the  children. 

THE  CANTINES  SCOLAIRES 

One  definitely  recognized  part  of  the  functions 
of  the  Caisses  des  ficoles  soon  came  to  be  the  Can- 
tine  Scolaire,  or  school  lunch  room.  The  support 
for  this  branch  of  the  work  was  definitely  assumed 
by  the  government  in  Paris  in  1880  and  has  since 
become  generally  recognized  throughout  France  as 
regularly  comprising  part  of  the  expenses  of  public 
education. 

As  early  as  1867  Victor  Duray,  the  minister  of 
public  instruction,  had  recommended  to  the  prefects 
that  they  look  after  the  hygienic  conditions  of  the 
schools,  and  direct  special  attention  to  the  nutrition 
of  the  children.  As  a  result,  during  the  next  decade 
school  meals  for  the  very  poor  children  were  started 
in  about  464  places.  These  meals,  not  yet  cantines 
in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  were  generally  in 
the  hands  of  the  Caisses  des  ficoles  committees.  By 
the  term  cantine  is  meant  a  school  restaurant  where 
any  child  can  get  a  meal  at  noon,  on  presentation 
of  a  ticket  that  represents  the  payment  of  the  cost 


80  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

of  the  food.  Further,  the  term  only  applies  to  res- 
taurants supported  in  part  or  entirely  by  public 
funds. 

There  are  at  present,  according  to  the  latest  re- 
port, about  1400  communes  in  France  supporting 
school  cantines  of  one  kind  or  another,  with  pro- 
vision for  about  187,000  children.  This  report 
covers  only  55  out  of  the  88  departments  making 
up  the  French  nation,  and  there  is  good  reason  to 
suppose  that  the  other  33  departments  are  well  sup- 
plied. The  cantines  in  Paris  may  be  taken  as  the 
type  of  the  true  cantine  scolaire  in  its  most  developed 
form. 

ADMINISTRATION    OF   THE   PARISIAN    CANTINES 
SCOLAIRES 

Paris  was  the  first  of  the  great  world  cities  to 
make  complete  and  adequate  provision  for  the 
proper  nourishment  of  all  her  school  children,  and 
this,  not  as  a  matter  of  charity  but  as  the  expression 
of  a  fundamental  conviction  in  education;  that  is, 
that  the  state,  in  assuming  responsibility  for  the 
mental  culture  of  the  children,  must  be  also  respon- 
sible for  their  physical  preparedness  for  this  culture. 
London  followed  her  example  some  twenty  years 
later. 


CANTINES  SCOLAIRES  OF  FRANCE      81 

The  municipal  provision  of  cantines  was  first 
considered  in  Paris  in  1877  when  one  of  the  city 
councillors  proposed  that  every  child  whose  parents' 
names  were  on  the  lists  of  the  Poor  Board  should 
receive  warm  food  and  clothing  from  the  city  in 
order  that  it  might  attend  the  public  schools.  Can- 
tines  were  at  once  started  in  a  few  schools,  but  it 
was  not  until  1880,  after  two  years  of  study  and  ex- 
periment, that  the  council  voted  financial  support 
and  the  cantines  were  established  in  every  school 
district.  From  the  beginning  the  cantines  were 
entrusted  to  the  administration  of  the  Caisses  in 
each  district,  which  received  a  special  subsidy  of 
480,000  francs  or  $96,000  toward  their  support, 
being  required  to  furnish  the  balance  of  the  cost 
from  local  sources. 

With  the  development  of  the  cantines,  the  sub- 
sidy from  the  city  was  gradually  increased,  till 
finally  it  covered  the  entire  cost  and  the  committee 
in  charge  of  the  Caisses,  now  entirely  official  bodies, 
were  responsible  only  for  the  administration  of  the 
cantines.  By  1900  the  cost  of  the  cantines  had 
risen  to  1,000,000  francs  or  $200,000  in  1905  to 
1,050,000  or  $210,000  where  it  has  remained.  In 
1900,  the  expenditures  for  the  cantines  amounted 

6 


82  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

to  a  little  over  four  per  cent,  of  the  city's  entire 
educational  budget. 

This  figure  $210,000  does  not  include  the  amount 
given  to  the  teachers  who  supervise  the  meals  each 
day.  They  are  paid  1  fr.  50,  about  25  cents  a  day 
for  an  hour's  attendance  at  noon.  This  fee  was 
gained  in  1904  after  a  long  struggle  on  the  part  of 
the  teachers,  who,  while  they  gave  their  services 
gladly  enough,  felt  it  was  unjust  to  be  required  to 
serve  without  pay. 

Each  year  the  different  districts  apply  to  the  city 
council  for  an  amount  that  they  think  will  cover 
their  expenses.  At  the  same  time  they  report  the 
work  of  the  past  year  and  give  in  detail  their  plans 
for  the  next.  The  council  then  distributes  the  en- 
tire amount  set  aside  for  the  cantines  in  proportion 
to  what  they  think  each  district  needs.  Three  gen- 
eral principles  of  procedure  that  have  been  followed 
ever  since  were  decided  upon  when  the  cantines 
were  first  established  in  Paris. 

MEALS  FOR  ALL,  FREE  FOR  THOSE  WHO  CANNOT  PAY 

The  first  is  that  the  meals,  although  open  to  all 
children,  whatever  their  economic  class,  shall  not  be 
free  to  all  but  free  only  to  those  children  unable  to 


CANTINES  SCOLAIRES  OF  FRANCE      83 

pay  the  cost  of  the  food.  Although  the  cost  of  the 
food  does  not  cover  the  cost  of  equipment  and  ser- 
vices, it  was  felt  that  if  the  parents  were  required  to 
pay  for  the  food,  it  would  be  an  ample  safeguard 
against  the  possibility  of  weakening  their  sense  of 
responsibility.  "  The  requests  for  free  food  are  re- 
ferred to  the  principals  of  the  schools;  they  are 
then  investigated  carefully  by  a  special  delegate  of 
the  Caisse  des  £coles,  who  includes  in  his  report  not 
only  the  parents'  statements  but  also  all  the  circum- 
stances which  oblige  the  family  for  the  time  being 
to  ask  for  charity.  Moreover,  the  privilege  is 
granted  for  only  one  school  year  at  a  time." 

UNIFORM  MEAL  TICKETS 

The  second  principle,  developing  from  the  first, 
is  that  in  distributing  the  food,  no  distinction  is 
made  between  those  paying  and  those  receiving  the 
food  free.  "  In  order  to  avoid  making  any  dis- 
tinctions of  such  a  kind  as  to  wound  the  feelings 
of  the  less  fortunate  families,  it  was  decided  to 
adopt  for  all  portions  distributed,  whether  paid  for 
or  not,  a  system  of  uniform  checks,  to  be  sold  to 
those  families  able  to  pay  for  them  and  to  be  given 
gratuitously  to  the  needy  children.     These  checks 


84  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

are  received  by  those  in  charge  of  the  cantines,  who 
are  absolutely  forbidden  to  receive  any  payment  in 
money. 

The  distribution  and  sale  of  the  tickets  is  taken 
care  of  at  the  town  hall  under  the  direction  of  the 
mayor,  and  of  a  committee  appointed  by  the  Caisses 
des  ficoles  and  of  a  second  committee  appointed 
from  the  Cantonal  Delegation."  1 

LOCAL   INDEPENDENCE   OF   THE  DISTRICT    CANTINES 

The  final  principle  is  that  the  Caisse  des  ficoles 
in  each  district  shall  have  complete  control  of  all 
other  points  in  the  organization  of  the  cantines. 
This  provision  allows  for  local  variation  in  ad- 
ministration to  meet  the  differing  local  conditions 
in  the  various  parts  of  the  city. 

There  are  two  general  methods  of  organization. 
By  the  first,  or  indirect  method,  the  Caisse  entrusts 
the  service  of  the  cantine  to  a  caterer,  paying  him 
so  much  per  meal,  usually  about  15  centimes  or  3 
cents.  By  the  other,  known  as  the  direct  method, 
the  Cantines  are  under  the  direct  supervision  of  a 

*  Extract  from  a  statement  made  by  the  Director  of 
Primary  Education  in  Paris,  on  "The  Organization  of  the 
School  Cantines  in  Paris,"  published  in  manuscript  manifold 
for  distribution. 


CANTINES  SCOLAIRES  OF  FRANCE      85 

committee  elected  by  the  Caisse.  The  latter  is  in 
use  in  the  majority  of  districts  and  is  considered  the 
better  from  every  point  of  view.  It  is  more  eco- 
nomical, as  the  cost  of  a  single  meal  rarely  exceeds 
two  cents,  as  against  three  or  four  cents,  by  the 
indirect  method. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  CANTINES  BY  THE  DIRECT 
METHOD 

In  those  districts  where  the  direct  method  is  used, 
the  Caisse  des  £coles  gives  the  entire  management 
of  the  cantines  into  the  hands  of  a  committee  con- 
sisting of  twenty  of  its  members.  This  committee 
meets  at  least  once  a  month.  It  chooses  the  trades- 
men that  are  to  be  patronized,  the  staff  of  workers 
in  charge  of  each  cantine,  and  issues  orders  for  the 
purchase  of  food,  etc.  There  is  always  one  woman 
inspector  appointed  by  the  committee,  who  has  fif- 
teen or  twenty  woman  helpers,  all  of  them  respon- 
sible to  the  committee. 

At  the  outset  the  committee,  having  chosen  the 
trades-people,  gives  specific  direction  for  the  buying 
of  the  foods,  the  price  to  be  paid,  the  quality  used, 
etc.  The  food  bought  must  always  be  of  excellent 
quality.     Beef,  legs  of  mutton,  and  fresh  pork  for 


86  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

roasting  are  the  meats  most  commonly  used.  The 
vegetables  must  be  fresh  in  summer. 

The  menu  must  include  meat  or  vegetable  soup, 
and  meat  with  a  vegetable  or  macaroni. 

As  a  rule,  each  cantine  supplies  two  schools, 
though  where  the  schools  are  very  large  they  may 
each  have  their  own  cantine.  At  the  head  of  each 
cantine  is  a  "  cantiniere,"  who  is  responsible  for  the 
receiving,  preparation  and  safe-keeping  of  the  food, 
as  well  as  for  attending  to  the  care  of  the  equip- 
ment and  fuel.  She  has  one  or  more  assistants, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  cantine.  The  salaries  of 
these  women  vary  according  to  the  amount  of  work 
they  have  to  do,  but  all  are  allowed  their  lunches. 

The  head  woman  inspector  must  visit  as  many 
cantines  as  possible  in  a  day,  and  see  the  food  both 
in  the  raw  and  cooked,  as  well  as  watch  the  proc- 
esses of  preparation  and  service.  Her  assistant  in- 
spectors visit  the  other  schools,  and  members  of  the 
cantine  committee  are  expected  to  make  frequent 
visits  as  well.  The  inspector,  her  assistants  and 
the  committee  are  required  to  report  the  results 
of  their  investigations  on  blanks  provided  for  the 
purpose.  These  blanks  are  submitted  to  the  Can- 
tine Committee  at  each  monthly  meeting. 


CANTINES  SCOLAIRES  OF  FRANCE      87 

REAL    MEALS,    NOT 

The  spirit  of  the  Parisian  cantines  is  thoroughly 
democratic.  The  principle  is  to  encourage  all  the 
children,  rich  and  poor,  to  eat  together,  and  there 
is  no  distinction  made  between  those  who  pay  and 
those  who  do  not.  A  child  may  bring  his  own  meal 
with  him,  but  it  is  never  so  cheap,  is  always  cold 
and  is  rarely  as  good  as  the  meal  provided  by  the 
cantine,  which,  as  all  observers  agree,  is  remarkably 
good. 

"  From  the  very  first,"  writes  an  English  visitor, 
"  the  greatest  care  has  been  taken  not  to  allow  any 
loss  of  dignity  to  arise  from  the  free  feeding.  The 
fundamental  principle  of  the  whole  management  is 
the  absolute  innocence  of  the  children.  They  cannot 
be  expected  to  pay.  Their  parents  may  be  at  fault ; 
if  so  there  is  only  the  greater  reason  to  shelter  the 
children  and  try  to  preserve  in  them  that  sense  of 
self-respect  which  might  so  easily  be  wrecked  by 
their  parents'  bad  conduct."  2  To  avoid  any  pos- 
sibility of  the  children  themselves  knowing  who 
pay  and  who  do  not,  the  simple  device  is  used  of 
a  small  box-office  through  which  each  child  goes 
to  purchase  his  ticket.     If  he  claims  that  he  cannot 

9  Lancet,  Reports  on  the  Free  Feeding  of  School  Children. 


88  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

pay,  the  ticket  is  still  given,  but  his  name  and  ad- 
dress are  noted,  and  inquiries  are  at  once  made 
about  his  parents.  Where  the  parents  are  found 
able  to  pay  they  are  compelled  to  do  so,  but  where 
they  cannot,  tickets  are  given  to  the  child  without 
further  question  for  as  long  as  may  be  necessary. 
Lists  of  those  who  are  to  receive  free  tickets  are 
made  out  at  the  beginning  of  every  school  year. 

A  THREE  COURSE  DINNER  FOR  THREE  CENTS 

The  food  that  may  be  bought  for  three  cents  at 
any  Paris  school  cantine  is  surprisingly  good  in 
quality  and  there  is  enough  of  it  to  satisfy  the 
hungriest  little  stomach.  Three  cents  will  buy  soup, 
meat  and  vegetables  and  sometimes  even  a  little 
sweet  by  way  of  dessert,  not  to  mention  all  the  bread 
wanted.  The  older  children  receive  30  grams  of 
meat,  and  the  younger  ones  twenty. 

The  menu  is  changed  every  day  in  the  week.  To 
quote  the  Lancet  Commissioner  again,  it  is  gener- 
ally something  as  follows: 

"  Three  days  in  the  week  there  is  '  bouillon  gras/ 
a  delicacy  unknown  in  England,  as  no  ordinary  Eng- 
lish cook  will  take  the  trouble  to  add  the  proper 


CANTINES  SCOLAIRES  OF  FRANCE      89 

proportions  of  flavoring  herbs  and  vegetables  to 
the  beef.  Only  twice  a  week  is  the  boiled  beef  with 
which  the  soup  has  been  made  given  for  the  second 
course.  As  this  meat  is  lighter  than  roast  meat 
care  is  taken  to  supply  for  the  third  course  the 
most  substantial  vegetables — namely,  lentils  or 
haricot  beans.  On  three  days  a  week  roast  beef, 
pork,  veal,  or  mutton  is  given,  preceded  by  a  tasty 
vegetable  soup,  and  followed  by  a  dish  of  mashed 
potatoes,  or  macaroni  cheese,  or  of  rice  and  milk, 
all  well  flavored,  well  cooked,  and  of  excellent 
quality." 

Though  only  the  midday  meal  is  compulsory,  in 
a  number  of  districts  soup  is  distributed  at  the  be- 
ginning of  school  to  the  poorest  children,  and  a 
"  goutte,"  or  little  bite,  of  bread  and  milk  in  the 
afternoon  at  four  o'clock. 

TEACHERS    AND    PUPILS    EAT    TOGETHER 

Perhaps  the  most  striking  proof  of  the  attractive 
character  of  the  dinners  is  the  approval  shown  by 
the  teachers  who  attend  regularly  even  when  not 
supervising.  Their  presence  at  the  meals  is  of 
obvious  value,  not  only  in  assuring  the  quality  of 


90  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

the  food,  but  even  more  for  the  opportunities  it 
offers  for  unconscious  culture. 

Mr.  John  Spargo,  who  has  visited  the  cantines 
and  eaten  at  them,  states  that  "  fully  90  per  cent, 
of  the  teachers  use  the  canteens  more  or  less  regu- 
larly, though  there  is  absolutely  no  compulsion  in 
the  matter.  They  prefer  to  do  so  on  account  of 
the  cheapness  and  wholesome  character  of  the 
meals."  He  goes  on  to  say,  "I  have  myself  sat 
down  to  a  three  cent  dinner  in  the  company  of  a 
well-known  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  a 
professor  of  languages,  and  several  teachers,  each 
one  of  us  having  gone  through  the  little  box-office 
and  bought  his  ticket  in  exactly  the  same  manner 
as  the  most  ragged  urchin.  All  of  the  children  are 
provided  with  paper  napkins.  The  presence  of  the 
teachers  is  a  sort  of  practical  education  in  table 
manners.  These  cantines  serve  therefore  as  a  great 
educational  and  ethical  force  as  well  as  a  remedy 
for  one  of  the  worst  evils  arising  out  of  the  national 
poverty  problem."  8 

The  principal  of  each  school  is  responsible  for 
the  distribution  and  sale  of  the  meal  checks,  and  for 

•Spargo,  John,  in  his  "The  Bitter  Cry  of  the  Children," 
p.  286,  1906,  New  York,  the  Macmillan  Company. 


CANTINES  SCOLAIRES  OF  FRANCE      91 

keeping  an  account  of  the  numbers  of  children  who 
buy  them  or  receive  them  free.  He  is  also  respon- 
sible for  "the  material  and  moral  well-being "  of 
the  cantines. 

MEDICAL    INSPECTION    IN    THE    CANTINES 

Medical  Inspection  is  obligatory  in  the  schools 
of  most  French  cities.  In  Paris  one  of  the  duties 
of  the  school  doctor  is  to  visit  the  cantines  in  each 
district.  He  must  examine  the  food  and  see  that 
the  children  get  the  proper  kind  and  amount  accord- 
ing to  their  ages.  If  he  finds  any  child  in  need  of 
a  special  sort  of  diet,  he  reports  this,  and  leaves 
orders  with  the  cantiniere  and  principal  which  must 
be  carried  out.  Sometimes  tonics  or  cod  liver  oil 
are  prescribed  and  furnished  at  meal  time  to  the 
children  needing  them. 

THE  COST  AND  EXTENT  OF  CANTINES  IN  PARIS 

All  the  districts  of  Paris  have  cantines  except 
the  eighth,  where  food  is  provided  for  the  very 
poor  children  only,  with  no  provision  for  children 
who  can  pay.  In  the  school  year  1908- 1909  there 
were  353  school  restaurants.  These  supplied  meals 
to  the  pupils  of  588  schools  and  38,531  children 


92  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

were  accommodated.  This  means  an  average  of 
109  children  to  each  cantine  and  66  children  from 
each  school.  The  entire  number  of  meals  served 
amounted  to  nearly  eight  millions,  or  a  little  over 
200  meals  for  each  child.  This  does  not  mean 
that  each  child  was  fed  for  two  hundred  days,  for 
in  some  districts  light  meals  are  given  in  the  morn- 
ing and  evening  as  well  as  at  noon. 

The  number  of  cantines  and  the  numbers  accom- 
modated vary  greatly  in  the  different  sections.  In 
the  1 8th  district,  where  the  service  is  considered  the 
most  satisfactory  by  the  city  government,  7,128 
children  are  accommodated  daily,  in  22  cantines. 

In  about  one-half  the  city  the  cantines  accom- 
modate about  150  children  apiece.  In  the  other 
districts  the  cantines  accommodate  on  an  average 
of  50  apiece. 

The  meals  vary  somewhat  in  cost  in  the  different 
districts.  In  the  ninth  district  the  average  net  cost 
of  the  meals  was  just  two  cents  per  meal,  while  in 
the  third  it  was  slightly  over  six  cents.  The  aver- 
age cost  was  just  under  four  cents,  to  be  exact,  3.8 
cents.  The  prices  paid  by  the  children  who  pur- 
chased their  meal  averaged  three  cents  per  meal. 
This  has  come  to  be  the  standard  price  for  a  meal 


CANTINES  SCOLAIRES  OF  FRANCE      93 

ticket  in  Paris.  In  thirteen  districts  three  is  the  regu- 
lar amount,  in  two  the  tickets  are  only  two  cents, 
while  in  one  district  only  does  it  rise  as  high  as 
four  cents. 

The  following  summary  gives  the  salient  facts 
about  the  service  of  school  meals  in  Paris: 

Cantines  Scolaires  in  the  City  of  Paris,  1908-1909 

Number  of  schools  588 

Number  of  Cantines  Scolaires 353 

Total  number  of  different  children  fed 38,531 

Total  meals   distributed    7,790,627 

Meals  paid  for  2,480,827 

Per  cent,  of  meals  paid  for 32 

Meals  given  free  5>309>8oo 

Per  cent,  of  meals  given  free  ,  68 

Average  cost  per  meal  in  cents  3-5 

Average  charge  per  meal  in  cents 2.9 

Subsidy  from  city  in  dollars  210,000 

CANTINES    IN    THE    REST    OF    FRANCE 

The  pioneer  town  in  France  to  have  school  meals 
was  Angers,  where  as  early  as  1871  a  society  known 
as  "  The  Society  for  People's  Kitchens  in  the  Pub- 
lic Schools"  (Societe  de  Fourneau  des  fecoles 
Laiques)  was  established  with  the  approval  and 
support  of  the  city  authorities.  With  the  co-opera- 
tion of  the  teachers  this  society  still  serves  a  warm 


94  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

midday  meal  free  to  all  who  cannot  pay  and  at  a 
cost  of  two  cents  to  others,  from  the  beginning  of 
November  to  the  end  of  May.  About  1800  children 
were  served  daily  in  1908. 

The  cantines  arose  independently  in  the  differ- 
ent sections  of  the  country,  Angers  leading  in  1871, 
and  Paris  making  them  compulsory  in  1882.  They 
now  constitute  a  part  of  the  school  equipment  in 
cities,  small  villages  and  country  districts.  An 
inquiry  regarding  the  number  of  places  having  can- 
tines,  the  number  of  children  accommodated,  etc., 
was  directed  by  the  author  of  the  present  work  in 
1909  to  the  prefect  at  the  head  of  each  of  the  88 
departments.  The  prefects  of  55  departments  re- 
plied, and  in  only  two  places  were  there  no  can- 
tines;  a  third  prefect  replied  that  he  could  not 
give  any  information  about  them.  All  three  of 
these  departments  were  country  districts.  In  at 
least  52  departments  of  France  there  are  cantines, 
providing  meals  for  anywhere  from  100  country 
children  on  the  Swiss  border,  to  55,000  in  the 
thickly  populated  department  of  the  Seine. 

In  the  majority  of  cases,  the  commune  holds  it- 
self directly  responsible  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
meals.    Out  of  43  cases,  the  support  and  administra- 


CANTINES  SCOLAIRES  OF  FRANCE      95 

tion  were  entirely  public  in  27,  while  in  the  other 
16  cases  the  administration  was  in  the  hands  of  a 
semi-public  society,  receiving  public  subsidy.  In 
other  words,  the  available  information  seems  to 
indicate  that  something  like  three-fifths  of  the  can- 
tines  are  supported  directly  and  entirely  by  public 
funds,  while  the  other  two-fifths  are  supported  in- 
directly and  partially  by  public  funds. 

The  following  analyses  of  official  reports  make 
a  convenient  summary  of  the  present  system  of 
Cantines  Scolaires  in  France: 

I.  Analysis  of  the  Reports  from  Fifty-Five  Departments 
of  France  Concerning  the  Cantines  Scolaires 

Among  fifty-five  departments  thirty-four  reported  the  number 
of  cities.    They  were  816  in  number. 

Among  fifty-five  departments  forty-five  reported  the  number 
of  communes.     They  were  1,391  in  number. 

Among  fifty-five  departments  thirty-nine  reported  the  number 
of  Cantines  Scolaires.     They  were  2,720  in  number. 

Among  fifty-five  departments  forty-seven  reported  the 
number  of  school  children  receiving  meals.  They  were 
186,505  in  number. 

Among  fifty-five  departments  forty-three  reported  facts  re- 
specting the  source  of  support  of  the  Cantines  Scolaires. 
In  twenty-seven  departments  they  were  supported  from 
public  funds;  in  the  remaining  sixteen,  from  public  and 
private  funds. 


96  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

Among  fifty-five  departments  two  reported  no  Cantines  Sco- 

laires. 
Among  fifty-five  departments  one  gave  no  information. 

II.  Analysis  of  the  Reports  from  Paris  and  the  Other 
Fifty-Four  Departments  Reporting 

No.  of  No.  of        No.  of  Children 

Schools  Cantines    Receiving  Meal. 

Paris   588  353  38,531 

France,   exclusive   of   Paris 2367  147,974 


Total  2720  186,505 

SUBSTITUTES  FOR  THE  REGULAR  CANTINES 
SCOLAIRES 

We  have  already  noted  that  the  term  cantine  has 
a  definite  meaning,  and  that  it  does  not  apply  to 
privately  run  meal  centres,  nor  yet  to  those  run  as 
relief  measures  even  where  the  government  sup- 
ports them.  In  a  large  number  of  places,  where 
for  some  reason  or  another  regular  cantines  have 
not  been  installed,  the  teachers  or  janitors  serve 
warm  soup  to  the  children  at  a  nominal  sum,  usually 
during  the  winter  months  only.  These  are  called 
by  the  general  names  of  "  Soupes  Chaudes,"  or 
"  Soupes  Scolaires,"  and  may  exist  in  the  same  town 
with  regular  cantines. 

Still  another  form  of  the  school  meal  that  is  yet 


CANTINES  SCOLAIRES  OF  FRANCE      97 

not  a  cantine,  is  found  in  country  districts  or  in  the 
smaller  towns,  where  the  children  bring  the  raw 
material  for  the  soup,  vegetables,  meat,  flavoring, 
etc.,  from  which  a  sort  of  communal  soup  is  pre- 
pared by  the  teacher,  of  which  all  partake.  Beside 
the  soup  stuff,  the  children  bring  their  own  bread 
and  sometimes  a  little  wine  and  water,  or  a  small 
cake  for  dessert.  There  is  one  more  form  of  pro- 
vision for  the  school  child's  lunch.  Most  schools, 
whether  or  not  they  have  a  cantine,  or  a  system  of 
"  Soupes  Claudes,"  do  have  a  stove  for  warming 
the  children's  food.  Thus,  a  child  may  bring  a  little 
pail  of  soup,  a  piece  of  meat,  or  an  eggf  and  the 
teacher  or  janitor  will  warm  it  for  him  if  he  is  too 
little  to  attend  to  it  himself. 

There  are  four  important  points  about  the  public 
provision  of  meals  in  France: 

i.  Although  there  is  no  specific  national  legisla- 
tion in  regard  to  school  restaurants  in  France,  their 
provision  is  nation-wide.  The  communes  are 
obliged  to  have  school  funds,  the  Caisses  des 
ficoles,  which  may  be  used  for  the  provision  of 
meals  whenever  there  is  need. 

2.  The  cantines  are  supported  directly  by  the 
municipalities  in  the  majority  of  cases.  To  a  less 
7 


98  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

degree  they  are  entrusted  to  semi-private  bodies,  re- 
ceiving public  subsidy. 

3.  Where  well  developed,  the  service  of  the  can- 
tines  is  closely  allied  to  that  of  Medical  Inspection, 
being  under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  school 
doctor,  who  may  at  any  time  suggest  a  special  diet 
for  a  particular  child,  or  prescribe  a  tonic  or  other 
medicine.  The  doctor's  orders  must  be  carried  out 
at  public  expense  in  these  cases. 

4.  Finally,  in  no  case  is  the  provision  of  meals 
regarded  as  charity,  but  always  as  an  expression  of 
the  ideal  "  mens  sana  in  corpore  sano." 

It  is  a  cardinal  point  in  the  French  theory  of 
education  that  a  child  must  have  a  warm  meal  in 
the  middle  of  the  day.  How  far  the  government 
has  been  interested  to  put  this  theory  into  practice 
may  be  judged  by  the  foregoing  account  of  school 
restaurants,  "  Soupes  Chaudes,"  the  "  communal 
soup,"  and  the  handy  school  stoves. 


School  Meals  in  German  Municipalities 

It  is  easy  enough  to  discover  and  feed  the  hungry  children, 
but  if  we  are  content  with  observing  the  merely  external,  we 
run  the  danger  of  overlooking  the  real  underlying  conditions, 
and  of  veiling  the  social  shame  that  they  represent. — Dr. 
Cuno,  1896. 

If  one  were  to  attempt  to  characterize  in  a  single 
phrase  the  movement  for  school  feeding  in  France, 
that  phrase  might  well  be  "  unconscious  evolution." 
For  England,  the  term  "  national  necessity  "  would 
seem  justified.  In  Germany  the  movement  in  its 
national  aspects  assumes  the  character  of  scientific 
experiment. 

Shortly  after  the  passage  of  the  British  Provision 
of  Meals  Act,  in  1906,  it  was  discovered  in  Ger- 
many that  from  forty- four  to  forty-six  per  cent,  of 
conscripts  for  the  Imperial  Army  were  rejected  for 
the  same  reason  of  physical  unfitness  that  caused 
the  failure  of  three  out  of  five  men  in  England.  One 
result  of  this  discovery  was  to  stimulate  national 
interest  in  the  subject  of  school  feeding  because 
here,  too,  malnutrition  during  the  period  of  growth 

99 


100  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

was  held  to  be  accountable  for  a  good  share  of 
the  trouble. 

The  way  in  which  the  problem  was  attacked  was 
characteristically  thorough.  An  exhaustive  study 
was  undertaken  beginning  with  the  history,  extent, 
character  and  methods  of  the  organization  already 
providing  school  meals  in  two  hundred  and  thirty- 
nine  cities  with  populations  of  ten  thousand  and 
over. 

For  the  most  part,  these  organizations  were  de- 
signed to  meet  the  need  of  only  a  limited  number 
of  children  who  were  in  acute  distress  and  the 
statistics  of  attendance  of  these  societies  were  no 
indication  of  the  real  condition  of  nutrition  among 
the  children  at  large.  Therefore  the  home  meals 
were  studied  of  over  500,000  children  represent- 
ing all  social  grades  in  over  a  hundred  cities. 
Among  other  things  it  was  discovered  that  there 
was  widespread  ignorance  among  parents  as  to 
the  proper  food  for  children,  and  that  as  a  conse- 
quence, many  thousands  of  children  were  growing 
up  with  wretchedly  bad  habits  of  eating. 

The  social  and  economic  causes  of  such  acute 
malnutrition  as  had  forced  attention  from  the  school 


MEALS  IN  GERMAN  CITIES  101 

authorities  were  studied  in  over  23,000  cases,  and 
were  found  to  be  almost  without  exception  laid  in 
poverty. 

The  dietaries  in  use  in  a  score  of  towns  having 
typical  organization  for  school  feeding  were  sub- 
jected to  chemical  analysis  in  order  to  determine 
their  food  value.  This  led  to  an  extensive  study 
of  the  proper  diet  for  the  school  age,  and  the  con- 
struction of  suitable  menus  for  school  use. 

Finally,  school  feeding  was  studied  in  its  relation 
to  the  general  progress  of  social  reform,  and  a  plan 
of  action  was  laid  out  that  included  the  formula- 
tion of  legislative  measures  involving  the  schools 
and  the  cost  of  living,  and  the  expense  of  food. 

The  results  of  this  investigation  conducted  by 
Dr.  Kaup,  director  of  medical  inspection  in  Berlin, 
were  discussed  in  May,  1909,  during  a  three  days' 
conference  of  the  League  for  Social  Welfare.1  They 
are  of  sufficient  value  to  be  enumerated  here  some- 
what in  detail  for  the  use  and  guidance  of  the 
movement  elsewhere. 

1  Kaup,  Dr.  J.,  Die  Ernahrungsverhaltnisse  der  Volkschul- 
kinder.  Vorbericht  und  Verhandlungen  der  3  Konferenz  der 
Zentralstelle  fur  Volkswohlfahrt. 


102  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

GENERAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  MOVEMENT  IN  GERMANY, 
I 79O- I 909 

The  most  striking  things  about  the  history  of  the 
school  feeding  movement  in  Germany  are  first  that 
it  is  very  old,  antedating  compulsory  education 
laws,  and  second  that  many  different  forms  of 
social  and  educational  endeavor  have  contributed 
to  its  long  development. 

The  beginning  was  made  over  a  century  ago  in 
Munich  when  it  was  discovered  that  the  soup 
kitchens,  established  in  1790  for  the  relief  of  the 
city's  unemployed,  and  as  a  guard  against  vagrancy, 
might  serve  also  as  a  relief  to  the  child  victims  of 
the  bad  industrial  conditions  incident  to  the 
introduction  of  the  factory  system.  From  the 
beginning  the  schools  were  encouraged  to  send 
groups  of  children  to  the  kitchens  at  noon  each 
day,  where  a  warm  meal  was  sold  or  given  free 
to  all  who  might  need  it.  This  work  was  un- 
organized and  sporadic,  as  was  that  in  the 
Children's  Homes,  which,  during  the  next  fifty 
years,  undertook  to  supply  breakfasts  or  lunches 
to  children  in  extreme  need  in  the  schools  in 
different  places. 


MEALS  IN  GERMAN  CITIES  103 

MAKING  SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE  EFFECTIVE 

In  1875  "The  Philanthropic  School  Society" 
was  started  in  Hamburg.  This  society,  like  many 
others,  started  at  this  time  in  Germany  and  in  other 
countries,  had  as  its  purpose  the  promotion  of 
attendance  and  efficiency  in  the  public  schools,  by 
means  of  the  provisions  of  free  text-books,  prizes 
for  good  scholarship  and  clothes  and  food  to  such 
children  as  needed  help.  School  feeding  soon  came 
to  be  one  of  the  main  activities  of  these  societies, 
which  were  early  subsidized  by  the  cities. 

PRIVATE  RELIEF  WORK 

Curiously  enough  the  work  of  school  feeding  by 
purely  private  effort  was  begun  relatively  late  with 
the  organization  in  1880  of  the  Dresden  "  Society 
for  Feeding  Needy  School  Children,"  and  while 
many  similar  societies  developed  elsewhere,  this 
form  of  administering  school  feeding  has  never 
been  so  prominent  in  Germany  as  other  forms  which 
are  more  closely  related  to  school  administration. 

VACATION    COLONIES    AND    SCHOOL    FEEDING 

Vacation  Colonies  were  started  in  different  parts 
of  Germany  in  the  early  seventies,  and  developed 


104  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

during  the  next  twenty  years  until  nearly  every 
city  had  its  little  group  of  men  and  women — 
mostly  teachers  and  doctors — who  saw  to  it  that 
sickly  and  weak  children  from  the  crowded  sec- 
tions were  sent  into  the  country  for  a  few  weeks 
in  the  summer.  When  these  vacation  colony 
workers  met  together  in  a  national  convention  at 
Leipsic  in  1890,  they  reported  the  same  thing;  the 
colonies  were  a  good  thing,  there  could  be  no  doubt 
that  the  children  were  benefited  by  them — but — 
when  the  children  returned  to  the  old  bad  con- 
ditions at  home,  crowded  quarters,  bad  air,  and 
particularly,  bad  food — the  good  effects  of  the 
weeks  in  the  country  were  soon  lost. 

Because  of  this,  many  colonies  had  attempted  to 
extend  some  of  their  benefits  through  the  winter 
by  feeding  a  few  of  the  children,  and  this  work, 
which  involved  much  home  visiting,  impressed  the 
teachers  with  the  need  existing  even  among  the 
stronger  children.  In  many  cities  it  was  discov- 
ered for  the  first  time  that  "  thousands  of  children 
come  to  school  every  morning  without  having  had 
the  least  thing  to  eat."  In  this  way  the  work  of 
feeding  the  children  when  they  came  home  from 


MEALS  IN  GERMAN  CITIES  105 

the  country  came  to  be  considered  quite  as  im- 
portant as  sending  them  away. 

As  a  result  of  the  Leipsic  convention  an  in- 
vestigation of  the  subject  of  school  feeding  was 
started  with  the  authority  and  backing  of  the  Prus- 
sian Government.  The  results  were  published  by 
Dr.  Cuno  in  1896.  At  that  time  there  were  79 
cities  where  some  sort  of  provision  for  school 
feeding  was  made.  The  organization  conducting 
it  included  private  societies,  publicly  endowed  so- 
cieties, and  Children's  Homes,  beside  the  work  of 
the  vacation  colonies.  Reports  from  42  cities, 
showed  that  a  total  of  27,635  children  were  being 
fed. 

Popular  interest  in  Dr.  Cuno's  report  was  so 
great  that  a  year  later,  in  1897,  the  Social  Demo- 
crats introduced  a  bill  into  the  Reichstag,  calling 
for  the  provision  of  school  meals  in  all  cities.  This 
bill  was  opposed  and  defeated  on  the  ground  that 
the  provision  of  meals  at  school  would  cause  a 
migration  of  population  to  the  cities.  However, 
the  agitation  resulted  in  an  increased  subsidizing 
of  local  societies  by  city  councils  and  the  movement 
grew  apace. 


106  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

SCHOOL   FEEDING  BECOMES  A   NATIONAL  ISSUE 

During  the  next  decade,  when  all  England  was 
being  stirred  by  the  rumor  of  national  deteriora- 
tion, when  France  was  working  out  its  national 
legislation  in  regard  to  children,  and  at  the  height 
of  the  campaign  in  Germany  for  a  national  Child 
Labor  Bill,  the  problem  of  school  feeding  became 
more  sharply  defined  and  took  on  the  characteristics 
of  a  national  issue. 

In  Germany,  as  in  England,  there  was  an  alarm- 
ing percentage  of  physical  unfitness  among  army 
recruits.  Of  all  these  coming  up  for  service,  dur- 
ing a  period  of  ten  years,  from  1890- 1907,  between 
44  and  46  per  cent,  were  rejected,  in  spite  of  a 
lowering  in  the  standard  physical  requirements.2 
On  the  face  of  it,  this  did  not  look  quite  so  serious 
as  England's  60  per  cent.,  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  because  of  compulsory  military  service 
the  Germany  figures  are  based  on  a  far  larger 
proportion  of  the  male  population. 

As  in  England,  underfeeding  during  the  period 
of  growth  was  pointed  to  as  one  great  cause.  The 
matter     was    taken    up    in    Labor    Bulletins,    at 

*  Simon,  Helene,  Schule  und  Brot.,  p.  65. 


MEALS  IN  GERMAN  CITIES  107 

teachers'  conventions,  national  and  international, 
in  congresses  of  child  hygiene  and  by  the  non- 
technical press,  and  work  for  national  action  was 
begun  in  earnest  with  the  investigation  now  under 
consideration. 

PRESENT   ORGANIZATIONS    FOR   SCHOOL   FEEDING   IN 
GERMANY 

According  to  Dr.  Kaup's  report,  there  are  239 
cities  with  some  sort  of  provision  for  school  feed- 
ing. The  majority  of  the  organizations  are  sup- 
ported entirely  or  in  part  by  city  subsidies. 

SCHOOL  BREAKFASTS  IN  STUTTGART 

In  most  places  the  meal  served  is  breakfast  either 
before  school  or  in  the  forenoon  recess  at  10  o'clock. 
The  best  form  of  organization  is  probably  that  of 
Stuttgart,  where  since  1906,  a  breakfast  of  bread 
and  milk  has  been  served  each  week-day  morning 
during  the  entire  year.  The  work  is  under  the 
direction  of  the  Medical  Inspector  of  Schools,  and 
is  supported  entirely  by  the  municipality.  In  order 
to  keep  the  expense  of  provisions  down,  no  children 
are  given  free  meals  save  those  who  are  known  to 
be  in  real  need  of  help.    All  others  must  pay. 


108  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

There  are  careful  municipal  regulations  govern- 
ing the  service,  the  location  of  centres,  the  kind  of 
milk  sold,  and  the  general  sanitation  of  kitchens 
and  dining-rooms.  These  regulations  together  with 
the  provisions  for  supervision  and  the  rules  govern- 
ing the  free  admission  of  children  to  the  breakfasts 
are  given  in  Appendix  D  of  this  book.  The  most 
important  of  the  regulations  are  as  follows : 

i.  Each  school  district  must  have  at  least  one 
school  where  bread  and  milk  are  served  in  the 
morning. 

2.  Meal  tickets  costing  8  cents  for  six,  are  sold 
each  week  in  the  schools  to  those  children  who  are 
listed  as  wanting  breakfasts. 

3.  No  child  can  receive  free  meal  tickets,  unless 
the  committee  of  inquiry  for  the  school  has  dis- 
covered a  real  need. 

4.  No  visible  distinction  shall  be  made  between 
children  paying  for  the  breakfasts  and  those  re- 
ceiving them  free. 

5.  Each  child  shall  receive  at  each  meal  %  liter, 
a  little  over  a  half  pint,  of  warm  milk  and  a  bread 
roll. 

6.  A  special  director  is  in  charge  of  each  centre 
and  is  responsible  for  promptness  and  cleanliness 


MEALS  IN  GERMAN  CITIES  109 

of  service.  The  dishes  and  all  utensils  must  be 
washed  after  each  meal  in  hot  water,  and  rinsed  in 
cold  and  must  be  kept  in  a  place  especially  provided. 
In  the  year  1907- 1908  the  meals  were  served  in 
25  centres,  to  an  average  of  2,350  or  over  17  per 
cent,  of  the  school  population,  at  a  total  expense 
to  the  city  of  $6,800.  The  breakfasts  are  pro- 
nounced a  success  by  the  teachers,  who  find  the 
children  much  better  able  to  follow  the  lessons, 
which  in  Stuttgart  are  heaviest  in  the  morning. 

SPECIAL  PROVISIONS  IN  POOREST  SECTIONS 

In  the  very  poorest  sections,  where  the  mothers 
and  fathers  of  the  children  are  away  from  home 
all  day,  the  city  serves  a  warm  dinner  of  soup  and 
meat  and  vegetables  at  noon  in  four  kitchens, 
specially  erected  for  the  purpose,  each  of  which 
accommodates  something  over  200  children  daily. 
In  addition  there  are  475  children  fed  daily  in  the 
subsidized  Children's  Home.  Including  these  three 
forms  of  feeding,  the  municipal  breakfasts  in  25 
centres,  the  municipal  dinners  in  four  schools,  and 
the  work  of  the  children's  homes  is  a  total  of  over 
3,600  children,  or  26  per  cent,  of  the  school  popula- 
tion who  are  fed  in  the  Stuttgart  schools. 


110  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

SCHOOL   DINNERS    IN    CHARLOTTENBURG 

Charlottenburg,  now  well  known  to  schoolmen  as 
the  place  where  the  first  open  air  school  was  started, 
has  the  best  form  of  midday  meal,  in  addition  to  a 
system  of  breakfasts  modelled  on  the  Stuttgart 
plan.  In  1906,  when  the  breakfasts  were  started,  a 
careful  canvass  of  the  home  feeding  of  all  the  chil- 
dren was  made,  and  it  was  discovered  that  about 
3,000  children  were  fed  irregularly,  going  without 
one  or  more  meals  a  day,  or  having  no  warm  meal 
at  noon.  This  meant  that  14  per  cent,  of  the  school 
population  were  in  need  of  some  sort  of  provisions. 

A  system  of  meals  was  inaugurated,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Board  of  Health.  Under  this  sys- 
tem breakfasts  are  provided  in  the  schools,  and 
dinners  are  served  in  special  centres  under  the 
immediate  direction  of  the  Children's  Home  So- 
ciety. All  expenses  are  paid  by  the  city.  In  the 
case  of  the  dinners,  the  city  pays  the  society  in 
charge  4  cents  a  portion,  3  cents  of  which  is  for 
the  raw  material  and  one  for  the  general  expenses 
of  service.  By  the  fall  of  1908  the  breakfasts  and 
lunches  were  being  served  to  about  1,400  children 
in  all.  The  service  is  continued  throughout  the 
year. 


MEALS  IN  GERMAN  CITIES  111 

The  food  is  prepared  according  to  special  direc- 
tions furnished  by  Dr.  Max  Rubner,  the  celebrated 
authority  on  nutrition.  The  breakfasts*  "and  dinners 
together  are  so  planned  as  to  meet  half  of  what 
is  thought  necessary  for  a  day's  ration  for  the 
growing  child.  Meat  is  served  twice  a  week,  but 
vegetables  and  rice,  cooked  with  bacon,  are  served 
daily.  In  warm  weather  fruit  is  served.  The  chil- 
dren are  allowed  as  much  as  they  want.  The  meals 
are  served  with  care,  ""the  children  being  seated  at 
tables  which  are  laid  with  cloths  and  decorated 
with  flowers. 

There  is  considerable  "  follow-up "  work  done 
in  connection  with  the  Charlottenburg  meals,  and 
in  each  case  the  children's  home  conditions  are 
studied.  The  attempt  is  made  to  find  and  provide 
for  every  case  of  need.  Personal  interviews  are 
held  with  parents,  who  are  instructed  in  the  care 
of  their  children.  Children  whose  parents'  names 
are  already  on  the  lists  of  public  or  private  charity 
associations  are  admitted  to  free  meals  without 
question.  Wherever  possible,  however,  parents  are 
held  strictly  responsible  for  payment  for  the  meals. 

To  summarize:  The  best  practice  in  Germany 
school  feeding  as  illustrated  by  Stuttgart  and  Char- 


112  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

lottenburg  includes:  Provision  all  the  year  round 
for  any  children  who  care  to  come.  Meals  free  to 
those  who  cannot  pay.  Supervision  during  meals 
and  follow-up  work  in  connection  with  the  meals. 
Correlation  with  Medical  Inspection.  Careful 
preparation  of  menus,  to  embody  a  dietary  suited 
to  the  needs  of  growing  children.  The  service, 
clean,  sanitary,  and  pleasing  in  appearance. 

The  investigation  showed  that  for  one  reason 
or  another  the  meals  in  Stuttgart  and  Charlotten- 
burg  could  not  be  considered  typical  of  the  service 
throughout  the  country.  Rather  they  represented 
the  ideal,  or  model.  The  most  serious  difference 
between  the  meals  in  these  two  cities  and  elsewhere 
was  found  to  be  in  the  character  of  the  food  itself. 
First  as  regards  the  breakfasts. 

GENERAL    CHARACTER    OF    FOOD    SERVED 

There  are  153  places  beside  Stuttgart  where  a 
breakfast  of  some  sort  is  served.  In  no  of  these 
warm  milk  and  bread  are  given.  Nine  cities  give 
coffee  and  bread — merely  a  stop  gap,  and  not  real 
food.  In  the  other  soup  and  bread,  cocoa  and 
bread,  or  a  sandwich  is  served. 


MEALS  IN  GERMAN  CITIES  113 

In  order  to  determine  the  best  form  of  breakfast 
for  children,  the  menus  given  in  six  typical  organiza- 
tions were  analyzed.  One  of  these  breakfasts  con- 
sisted of  bread  and  milk ;  the  others  of  soup,  made 
with  milk  and  cereals,  peas,  beans,  or  meat  stock. 
The  superiority  of  bread  and  milk  was  demon- 
strated when  it  was  shown  that  in  only  one  other 
menu  was  the  food  value  anywhere  near  equal 
to  that  found  in  the  Stuttgart  breakfast.  The  meals 
of  bean  and  pea  and  meat  soups,  were  found  to 
give  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  proper  amount  of 
energy,  while  the  protein  or  tissue-building  element 
was  very  low  indeed. 

As  regards  the  menus  in  the  dinners,  the  con- 
dition was  found  to  be  even  more  serious.  Dinners 
of  some  sort  are  served  in  86  cities  out  of  189 
reporting.  Upon  analysis  of  the  food  served  in 
12  different  cities,  chosen  as  types  from  yy  cities 
whose  menus  were  ascertained,  it  was  found  that 
not  one  contained  what  was  considered  a  normal 
amount  of  nutritive  value.  The  standard  used  for 
comparison  was  that  of  Dr.  Erisman,  a  Swiss 
authority  on  the  feeding  of  school  children,  who 
considers  that  the  main  meal  should  contain  about 
one-half  of  the  total  amount  needed  during  the 
8 


114  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

day.  As  in  most  cases  the  school  meal  was  planned 
to  be  the  chief  meal  of  the  day,  it  seemed  fair  to 
apply  the  standard.  In  the  twelve  cities,  not  one 
furnished  such  a  standard,  that  is  a  meal  yielding 
816  Calories  of  fuel  value.  The  one  that  came 
nearest  to  meeting  this  standard  served  76  per  cent, 
of  this,  and  the  percentage  dropped,  through  the 
12  cities,  to  25  per  cent,  in  one.  On  the  average 
the  meals  yielded  475  Calories  each,  not  bad  at  all 
for  a  light  lunch,  but  not  enough  for  one-half  the 
day's  food  supply.  The  amount  of  protein  was 
far  lower  than  the  standard  in  nearly  all  cases, 
sometimes  falling  as  low  as  2J  per  cent,  of  normal. 
On  an  average,  the  meals  contained  about  three- 
fifths  the  normal  requirements  of  meat  or  other 
protein  material. 

GENERAL    CHARACTER    AND    SUPPORT    OF    SCHOOL 
FEEDING    ORGANIZATIONS 

The  kind  of  organization  and  support  varies 
considerably  in  the  different  cities.  There  are  in 
general  three  forms.  First  there  are  private  so- 
cieties giving  meals  as  relief  measures  to  the  chil- 
dren, and  receiving  no  money  support  from  the 
city,  though  nearly  always  the  school  authorities 


MEALS  IN  GERMAN  CITIES  115 

cooperate  in  the  work  of  supervising  and  service, 
and  in  many  cases  the  rooms,  and  even  gas  for 
cooking  are  supplied  free.  Such  societies  were 
found  in  78  cities  out  of  189  reporting.  In  1907- 
1908  these  societies  fed  over  17,000  children,  a 
number  amounting  to  4  per  cent,  of  the  school 
population  in  these  cities. 

The  next  form  found  in  68  cities  is  in  the  hands 
of  private  organizations,  which,  however,  receive 
financial  support  from  the  city  governments  and 
are  usually  under  its  supervision.  These  societies 
served  meals  to  about  56,000  children  in  the  cities 
where  they  operated. 

Finally  there  are  43  cities,  where  the  work  of 
school  feeding  is  a  municipal  affair  entirely,  and 
as  a  rule  is  in  the  hands  of  the  school  authorities, 
though  occasionally  it  is  conducted  by  the  Board 
of  Health.  In  these  cities  nearly  18,000,  or  six 
per  cent,  of  the  children,  attend  the  meals. 

In  addition  to  regular  forms  of  school  feeding 
just  enumerated  the  Children's  Homes  in  43  cities 
assume  part  of  the  work.  If  we  include  16,000 
school  children  fed  in  this  way  this  makes  a  total 
of  111,000  or  6.5  per  cent,  of  the  school  population 
that  are  provided  with  meals  outside  their  homes. 


116  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

School  feeding  is,  as  we  should  expect,  more 
extensive  in  the  great  cities  than  in  the  smaller 
ones.  Of  the  41  cities  in  the  empire  with  popula- 
tions over  100,000,  there  are  32  having  organiza- 
tions for  school  feeding.  It  is  by  no  means  con- 
fined to  the  great  cities,  however;  indeed  it  is  in 
cities  of  the  fourth  class  with  populations  from 
20,000  to  30,000  that  the  largest  percentages  of 
children  attend  the  meals;  and  it  is  the  small  cities 
of  10,000  to  20,000  that  have  the  largest  per  cent, 
of  municipally  supported  organizations. 

The  movement  is  best  developed  where  children 
are  best  cared  for  in  other  directions  as  well.  For 
example,  the  State  of  Hesse  has  the  best  child 
labor  laws,  and  four  out  of  five  Hessian  cities  have 
school  feeding.  Over  one-half  of  all  the  cities  in 
the  Empire  with  school  feeding  are  in  Prussia, 
where  compulsory  education  dates  from  1802. 

CO-OPERATION   OF   ORGANIZATIONS   WITH    SCHOOL 

Whatever  the  source  of  funds  supporting  the 
meals  there  is  in  all  cases  the  closest  co-operation 
between  the  school  authorities  and  those  in  charge 
of  the  school  meals.  In  the  majority  of  cases  it  is 
the  teachers  who  determine  which  children  shall 


MEALS  IN  GERMAN  CITIES  117 

receive  the  meals.  In  a  few  cases,  where  the  meals 
are  supported  by  public  though  not  school  funds, 
the  preliminary  investigation  is  made  by  the  public 
poor  officials.  The  meals  are  nearly  always  served 
in  the  school  buildings,  and  the  supervision  of 
the  children  at  their  meals  is  nearly  always  done  by 
the  teachers.  In  Munich,  a  municipal  ordinance 
passed  in  1874  and  still  operative  provides  for  the 
supervision  of  the  children  during  meals  and  after, 
before  the  afternoon  work  begins. 

There  is  the  greatest  variety  in  the  number  of 
months  during  the  year  that  the  meals  are  served 
in  the  different  cities.  Of  151  places  reporting 
over  a  third  have  meals  from  3  to  5  months  in  the 
winter;  in  a  quarter  they  are  open  from  2  to  3 
months;  in  about  one  per  cent,  they  are  open 
throughout  the  school  year;  and  in  32  or  one- 
fifth  of  all,  for  the  entire  year,  winter  and  summer. 
Another  point  of  difference  is  the  kind  of  meal 
served,  the  majority  of  places  giving  breakfasts, 
some  dinners,  and  some  giving  both  meals.  Finally 
there  is  the  fact  that  some  organizations  serve 
meals  only  to  the  poorest  children  while  others 
conduct  regular  school  restaurants,  where  all  may 
come  who  care  to  pay  the  cost  of  the  food. 


118  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

Because  of  this  great  diversity  in  the  form  of 
organization  and  the  length  of  service  a  summary 
as  to  the  number  of  children  involved  or  the  cost 
of  the  work  is  well  nigh  meaningless.  However, 
from  189  cities  enough  data  were  given  to  make 
possible  the  general  statement  that  school  feeding 
of  some  kind  reaches  some  time  during  the  year 
111,000  children,  who  form  6.5  per  cent,  of  the 
total  school  population  in  those  cities. 

The  general  statement  that  6.5  per  cent,  of  the 
children  are  served  does  not  hold  uniformly  for  all 
states  in  the  Empire.  For  example,  in  Saxony 
the  numbers  fed  form  slightly  less  than  2  per  cent, 
of  the  whole,  while  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  the 
numbers  fed  formed  1 1  per  cent. ;  in  Wurtemburg, 
12  per  cent.;  in  Hesse,  where  3  cities  out  of  4 
provide  school  meals,  14  per  cent.;  and  in  Baden, 
16  per  cent.  These  figures  vary  even  more  widely 
in  the  separate  cities,  as  in  some  cities  only  one- 
half  of  one  per  cent,  of  the  children  attend  the 
meals,  while  in  others,  for  example,  Konstance,  the 
numbers  form  as  much  as  34  per  cent,  of  the  total 
school  population. 


MEALS  IN  GERMAN  CITIES  119 

EXPENSE 

The  total  expenditure  in  160  cities  reached  in 
1907-1908,  $146,136,  exclusive  of  the  amounts 
paid  for  the  meals,  by  the  children  themselves. 
About  one-quarter  of  the  children  pay  2  cents  for 
breakfasts  and  3  cents  for  dinner. 

An  estimate  was  made  by  Dr.  Kaup  of  the  prob- 
able expense  of  extending  the  present  system  of 
school  feeding  to  all  cities,  and  having  the  same 
percentage  of  children  fed  on  every  school  day 
during  the  year.  This  would  amount  to  8,330,333 
marks,  or  $1,666,066. 

In  the  open  air  schools  in  Charlottenberg,  the 
question  of  food  preparation  has  been  so  carefully 
studied,  that  the  expense  of  feeding  each  child  five 
meals,  one  of  which  is  a  substantial  dinner — is  a 
trifle  over  nine  cents  a  day.  If  the  same  care  were 
exercised  in  the  preparation  of  the  lunches  in  the 
ordinary  schools,  $1,666,066  would  be  sufficient  to 
supply  all  needy  children  in  city  and  country  with  a 
milk  breakfast  and  a  warm  dinner  every  day  in 
the  year. 

The  following  statements  are  a  summary  of  the 


120  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

present  provisions  made  in  German  cities  for  school 
feeding : 

From  an  inquiry  sent  to  525  cities  with  10,000  inhabitants 
and  over,  replies  were  received  from  487. 

Of  the  487,  239  reported  some  form  of  school  feeding  and 
189  gave  details  of  organization.  In  189  cities  the  financial 
support  of  the  school  feeding  was  entirely  municipal  in  43; 
partially  private  and  partially  public  in  68;  and  entirely 
private  in  78. 

A  total  number  of  111,000  children  are  fed  in  189  cities, 
these  forming  over  6  per  cent,  of  the  total  school  population 
in  these  cities. 

THE  FOOD   HABITS   OF   GERMAN    CHILDREN 

The  next  important  thing  to  determine  was  how 
well  the  organizations  for  school  feeding  were  meet- 
ing the  need,  and  this  meant  that  the  real  conditions 
of  school  children  in  general  must  be  known;  first 
the  actual  food  consumed  daily,  and  then,  how  the 
children  were  thriving,  or  failing  to  thrive  on  their 
diet. 

Careful  inquiries  were  made  by  teachers  and 
doctors  and  social  workers  in  winter  and  summer, 
and  the  results  obtained  made  it  possible  to  account 
for  the  food  habits  of  over  500,000  children,  with 
a  fair  amount  of  detail.     The  inquiry  embraced 


MEALS  IN  GERMAN  CITIES  121 

altogether  74  cities,  details  for  the  summer  months 
being  had  for  only  53  of  these.  With  eight  ex- 
ceptions, the  cities  involved  were  small,  that  is  with 
less  than  50,000  inhabitants  and  most  of  them  with 
10,000  to  20,000.  The  conditions  therefore  may 
all  the  more  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  country  at 
large  and  not  merely  as  exaggerated  results  of 
congestion. 

In  general  the  findings  of  this  inquiry  were  as 
follows : 

For  breakfast,  80  per  cent,  of  the  children,  in 
all  classes  of  society  throughout  these  cities,  have 
coffee,  mostly  with  but  some  without  rolls  or  bread. 
Ten  per  cent,  have  milk  in  some  form,  usually  bread 
and  milk.  Five  per  cent,  have  tea  or  cocoa  and 
bread.  Nine  per  cent,  have  other  things — soup, 
eggs,  etc.  Finally,  over  one  per  cent,  have  no 
breakfast  of  any  kind,  despite  the  widespread  pro- 
vision of  school  breakfasts.  In  some  cities  the 
number  of  children  without  breakfast  of  any  kind 
reached  8  per  cent,  of  the  school  population.  As- 
suming that  the  average  percentage  holds  through- 
out all  cities,  there  are  over  30,000  children  going 
daily  to  school  without  breakfast. 

The  large  majority  of  children  have  a  warm  mid- 


122  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

day  meal,  either  at  home  or  in  school.  About  5 
per  cent,  of  all  have  a  cold  lunch  in  winter.  This 
percentage  runs  much  higher  in  industrial  centres, 
so  that,  in  some  factory  towns,  as  many  as  one- 
quarter  of  the  children  have  a  cold  lunch,  sometimes 
of  very  meagre  quality.  Assuming  again  that  the 
general  per  cent,  of  5  holds  in  all  cities,  there  are 
170,000  children  who  ordinarily  have  a  cold  lunch, 
often  of  an  entirely  inadequate  nature  for  their  only 
midday  meal. 

For  supper,  about  half  have  a  warm  meal,  and 
about  half  a  cold  lunch.  Less  than  1  per  cent,  of 
all  go  supperless  to  bed,  though  here  the  figures 
vary  considerably  in  different  places.  The  custom 
of  having  the  children  wait  till  night  for  a  warm 
dinner  is  growing  rapidly,  especially  in  large  towns 
where  the  mothers  are  working  away  from  home 
all  day.  In  Berlin,  whose  figures  have  not  been 
included  in  the  data  given  so  far,  7  per  cent,  of 
the  children  reported  that  their  main  meal  was 
between  six  and  seven  at  night. 

One  rather  disquieting  discovery  was  the  extent 
to  which  alcohol  is  used — 23  cities  reported  2  per 
cent,  of  children  receiving  alcohol  in  some  form  at 
breakfast;   40  cities  reported  4  per  cent,  having  it 


MEALS  IN  GERMAN  CITIES  123 

at  dinner,  while  36  cities  reported  5.2  per  cent,  hav- 
ing it  in  the  evening.  This  makes  a  total  of  18,299 
children  having  alcohol  as  a  rule  once  a  day. 

This  survey  of  the  food  habits,  while  suggestive, 
could  not  give  an  adequate  view  of  the  nutrition 
of  the  children,  because  in  so  extensive  an  inquiry 
the  questions  of  quantity  and  quality  of  the  food 
eaten  might  not  be  considered. 

A  superficial  survey  made  by  teachers  of  nearly 
170,000  children,  showed  12  per  cent,  well  nour- 
ished, 23  fairly  and  only  5  per  cent,  badly.  But 
this  was  admittedly  the  result  of  a  superficial  in- 
spection, and  was  not  regarded  as  at  all  exact. 

Later,  a  special  examination  of  27,440  of  these 
children,  of  all  social  grades,  in  22  cities,  was  made 
by  medical  inspectors.  They  found  11,422  chil- 
dren, or  42  per  cent.,  whom  they  were  able  to  term 
well  nourished.  About  fifty  per  cent.,  13,823,  were 
fairly  well  nourished.  The  remainder,  2,195,  or 
8  per  cent.,  were  distinctly  undernourished. 

MAIN  CAUSE  FOR  SERIOUS  UNDERFEEDING 

Throughout  this  inquiry  special  attention  was 
paid  to  the  economic  and  social  causes  for  the 
large  amount  of  serious  underfeeding  everywhere 


124  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

evident.  Specific  data  were  gathered  in  the  cases 
of  over  23,000  children,  by  doctors,  teachers  and 
social  workers  who  visited  the  homes  and  left  no 
stone  unturned  to  get  accurate  and  adequate  infor- 
mation, filling  out  elaborate  blanks  for  each  child.3 

The  causes  discovered  in  this  way  were  grouped 
in  the  original  report  under  eleven  different  heads, 
as  follows :  Chronic  poverty,  sickness  of  bread  win- 
ner, death  of  bread  winner,  unemployment,  family 
too  large  for  the  income,  child  labor,  mother's  em- 
ployment outside  the  home,  culpable  neglect  by 
lazy  and  drunken  parents,  children's  haste  and  loss 
of  appetite,  from  nervousness  or  illness,  long  dis- 
tance to  school,  and  miscellaneous. 

The  first  six  causes  may  be  grouped  as  "  Poverty." 
The  mother's  employment  outside  the  home  is  an 
increasingly  important  factor  socially;  although  it 
as  a  rule  belongs  logically  under  the  caption  "  Pov- 
erty," it  is  listed  separately.  Haste  and  loss  of 
appetite  from  illness  or  from  nervousness,  may  be 
grouped  as  loss  of  appetite.  The  long  distance  from 
school,  a  cause  of  no  breakfast  and  a  scanty  lunch, 
was  found  chiefly  in  the  smaller  towns.  Culpable 
neglect  was  found  in  relatively  few  cases.    Finally 

•Kaup,  pp.  71-72  and  93~94- 


MEALS  IN  GERMAN  CITIES  125 

under  the  head  miscellaneous  came  sporadic  ac- 
cidents, temporary  illness  of  children,  deserted 
mothers,  and  many  other  ill-defined  factors  which 
probably  all  belonged  in  other  groups. 

The  relative  importance  of  these  various  causes 
in  producing  malnutrition  is  shown  in  the  following 

table : 

Table  4 

Causes  Number     Percentage 

of  Cases      of  Total 

i.  Poverty  14,725  62 

2.  Miscellaneous    2,986  12 

3.  Loss  of  appetite  2,709  11 

4.  Mother  works  out  1,653  7 

5.  Culpable  neglect    1,093  5 

6.  Long  distance  446  2 

Totals    23,612  99 

SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION 

The  conclusion  arrived  at  by  the  delegates  to  the 
national  conference  of  the  League  of  Social  Wel- 
fare where  this  report  was  presented,  and  discussed 
during  three  days,  was  as  follows : 

A  survey  of  children  representing  all  social  classes 
and  all  school  grades  had  shown  that  there  was 
undoubted  need  existing  for  some  sort  of  provision 
of  meals  at  school,  not  only  to  relieve  distress,  but 
to  educate,  and  raise  food  standards. 


126  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

The  amount  of  extreme  need  as  shown  by  acute 
malnutrition,  represented,  according  to  the  doctors, 
about  8  per  cent,  of  the  whole  school  population.  In 
addition  to  the  acute  cases,  50  per  cent,  of  the 
children  were  only  fairly  well  nourished,  leaving 
only  42  per  cent,  who  were  really  well  nourished. 

This  condition  of  insufficient  feeding  and  under- 
feeding was  fully  accounted  for  in  the  study  made 
of  the  home  feeding  of  the  children,  when  it  was 
discovered  that  80  per  cent,  of  the  children  had 
breakfasts  of  coffee  and  bread,  and  thousands  had 
none  at  all,  while  many  thousands  went  till  evening 
before  having  a  warm  meal. 

Underfeeding  was  found  to  have  a  hindering 
effect  on  school  progress,  because  the  children  were 
dull  and  listless  in  work  and  play.  Evidence  was 
submitted  to  show  that  malnutrition  lay  at  the  bot- 
tom of  many  diseases  and  physical  defects  in  school 
children.  For  example,  Dr.  Delitsch  of  Plauen  said 
that  food  was  quite  as  necessary  as  medicine  in 
helping  certain  eye  and  ear  troubles  that  result  from 
scrofula,  and  also  in  preventing  the  development  of 
tuberculosis.  Underfeeding  during  childhood  was 
further  held  responsible  for  the  failing  war  strength 
of  the  country. 


MEALS  IN  GERMAN  CITIES  127 

Not  quite  half  the  cities  were  making  any  sort 
of  provision  for  school  meals. 

Even  where  meals  were  served  they  were  reach- 
ing but  a  trifle  over  6  per  cent,  of  the  children.  The 
need  was  the  same  in  towns  without  provision,  and 
in  country  districts. 

The  meals  as  usually  given  were  inadequate  in 
quality  and  amount,  and  even  at  that  were  not 
served  throughout  the  year. 

PROPOSED    NATIONAL   PROGRAM 

Various  plans  for  future  work  in  school  feed- 
ing were  discussed  at  the  conference.4  Among 
those  that  found  most  favor  were  the  suggestions 
made  by  Dr.  Max  Rubner  of  Berlin  University, 
who  said  that  school  feeding  must  be  considered  as 
one  phase  of  the  larger  problem  of  the  nutrition  of 
the  people  as  a  whole.  A  definite  plan  for  a  cam- 
paign for  national  legislation  was  then  presented  by 
Miss  Helene  Simon,  a  well  known  German  writer 
on  social  economy,  who  is  a  leader  in  the  school 
feeding  movement  and  the  author  of  several  books 
on  the  subject. 

4Kaup,  Die  Ernahrungsverhaltnisse  der  Volkschulkinder, 
p.  132,  ff. 


128  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

The  most  significant  of  Dr.  Rubner's  suggestions 
were  the  following: 

"  Since  the  problem  of  nutrition  for  school  chil- 
dren is  part  of  the  larger  food  problem,  all  measures 
taken  to  influence  this  last  will  of  course  have  a 
great  influence  on  the  first.  Among  the  necessary 
reforms  afTecting  the  nutrition  of  the  people  as  a 
whole  are: 

"(a)  Widespread  education  in  all  that  has  to  do 
with  nutrition,  and  the  determining  of  the  correct 
nutritional  minima  upon  physiological  grounds. 

"(b)  Selling  of  foodstuffs,  etc.,  at  cost  in 
municipal  markets  and  stores  to  poor  families,  es- 
pecially those  with  a  large  number  of  children. 

"(c)  Establishment  of  People's  Diet  Kitchens  by 
municipal  and  by  private  societies.,, 

PROVISION    FOR   NATIONAL   LEGISLATION 

The  following  summary  for  the  provisions  that 
should  be  made  in  any  national  legislation  on  School 
Feeding  that  might  be  undertaken,  was  made  by 
Helene  Simon,  who  considers  that  this  legislation 
to  be  effective  must  be  compulsory.5 

"This  was  printed  in  the  form  given,  in  Simon,  Helene, 
Schulspeisung,  pp.  77-78. 


MEALS  IN  GERMAN  CITIES  129 

(a)  School  feeding  must  be  provided  where  it  is  an 
assured  need.  The  children  of  those  parents  who  are  on  the 
lists  of  charity  associations  as  well  as  those  who  pay  no 
taxes,  i.e.,  whose  income  falls  below  900  marks,  shall  be  con- 
sidered as  needy  without  further  question. 

(b)  Lists  of  cases  requiring  help  shall  be  made  out  and 
investigated  periodically. 

(c)  The  dietaries  shall  be  determined  on  physiological 
grounds.  Provision  should  be  made  possible  for  breakfast 
and  dinner,  for  the  whole  year.  Needy  children  shall  be  fed 
every  day. 

(d)  The  rooms  where  the  meals  are  held  should  be  in 
the  schools  or  in  adjoining  buildings.  All  details  and  direc- 
tions as  to  the  kind,  time,  place  and  organization  of  feeding, 
must  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  local  municipalities  and 
school  boards.  Only  where  these  neglect  their  duty  or  do  not 
carry  out  in  the  right  way  shall  the  State  Supervision  Board 
interfere. 

It  will  be  noted  that  these  proposed  measures 
do  not  differ  very  much  from  those  in  the  Pro- 
vision of  Meals  Act  in  England,  except  for  the 
fact  that  they  are  designed  to  be  compulsory. 

Since  the  conference  in  May,  1909,  the  question 
of  school  feeding  has  been  given  increasing  atten- 
tion in  Germany,  and  there  is  every  indication  that 
a  national  act  will  be  passed  at  no  far  distant  date. 
9 


VI 

School  Feeding  in  Other  European  Countries 


COMPULSORY    EDUCATION    AND    SCHOOL    MEALS    IN 
HOLLAND 

Holland  was  the  first  country  to  have  national 
legislation  providing  for  school  meals.  The  law 
of  1900  enforcing  compulsory  education  contained 
a  section  authorizing  the  municipalities  to  provide 
food  and  clothing  for  all  school  children  whether 
in  public  or  private  schools  "  who  were  unable,  be- 
cause of  the  lack  of  food  and  clothes,  to  go  regularly 
to  school  or  to  those  who  probably  would  not  con- 
tinue to  attend  school  regularly  unless  food  and 
clothes  were  provided." 

The  law  provided  that  this  work  might  be  done 
directly  or  by  supporting  voluntary  societies.  Up 
to  this  time  considerable  school  feeding  had  been 
done  by  voluntary  societies  and  as  early  as  1892 
no  fewer  than  53  communities  had  such  provisions. 
By  1907  there  were  37  towns  that  had  adopted  the 
provisions  of  the  act,  in  accordance  with  the  Royal 
130 


IN  EUROPEAN  COUNTRIES  131 

Decree,  and  were  contributing  wholly  or  in  part  to 
the  school  feeding. 

The  organization  is  about  the  same  as  in  other 
countries,  except  that  the  work  is  almost  entirely 
confined  to  giving  free  meals  to  those  in  absolute 
need.  The  work,  however,  is  entirely  a  school  affair. 
Teachers  and  principals  select  the  children  and  have 
charge  of  the  meal  tickets.  The  cost  per  meal  is 
restricted  by  law,  not  to  exceed  one  cent  and  a 
half.  According  to  reports  from  n  cities  a  total 
of  17,000  children  are  fed  every  school  day.  Some 
of  the  towns,  for  example  Amsterdam,  provide 
meals  winter  and  summer. 

HOW  THE  SWISS  GOVERNMENT  PROVIDES  FOR  SCHOOL 
MEALS 

The  finest  buildings  in  the  Swiss  towns  are  the 
school  houses.  But  the  principle  on  which  they  are 
built  seems  to  be  that  it  is  better  to  have  a  relatively 
small  number,  far  apart  but  of  excellent  quality, 
than  to  sacrifice  this  excellence  by  having  more  of 
them  nearer  together.  This  means  that  a  good  many 
children  have  a  long  way  to  go  to  school,  and  so,  as 
it  is  impossible  to  go  home  at  noon,  a  warm  lunch, 
usually  of  soup  and  bread,  but  sometimes  of  soup, 


132  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

meat  and  vegetables,  is  provided  in  most  schools. 
The  public  funds  are  used  for  this  purpose,  and  the 
lunches  are  free  in  the  larger  number  of  cases. 

Eighteen  years  ago,  in  1894,  the  Federal  Bureau 
of  Statistics1  found  that  no  less  than  35,000  children, 
or  eight  per  cent,  of  the  primary  school  enrolment, 
were  receiving  lunches  at  noon,  and  that  23,000  of 
these  had  over  a  half  hour's  walk  from  home.  In 
other  words  one  child  in  each  twelve  received  a 
school  lunch,  the  usual  reason  being  that  it  was  too 
far  for  him  to  go  home  at  noon. 

Most  of  the  lunches  provided  in  this  way  had 
originally  been  started  by  private  societies,  some- 
times with  the  object  of  promoting  school  attend- 
ance and  more  rarely  as  charitable  relief  measures. 
At  the  time  of  the  government  investigation  cited 
above,  the  support  of  the  work  had  been  largely 
taken  over  by  the  municipalities  and  cantons. 

Dr.  Huber,  the  official  who  made  the  investiga- 
tion, stated  that  the  results  of  school  feeding  had 
been  universally  praised  by  teachers,  who  testified 
that  because  of  the  lunches  there  was  better  school 
attendance,  better  attention  and  better  results  in 

1Jahrbuch  des  Unterrichtswesens  in  der  Schweiz,  1894. 
Federal  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Bern,  Switzerland. 


IN  EUROPEAN  COUNTRIES  133 

studies  as  a  consequence  of  better  health.  Dr. 
Huber  was  convinced  that  the  work  should  be  ex- 
tended to  accommodate  at  least  50,000  children,  or 
ten  per  cent,  of  the  school  population. 

Nine  years  after  this,  in  1903,  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment issued  an  order  in  regard  to  the  support 
of  the  public  elementary  schools,  which  put  the 
cantons  under  obligation  to  supply  food  and  cloth- 
ing to  whatever  children  were  in  need.2 

During  the  next  three  years  the  work  of  school 
feeding  spread  rapidly,  and  in  1906  the  Federal 
authorities  authorized  the  use  of  state  funds  for 
their  support,  as  well  as  for  vacation  colonies  and 
milk  stations,  but  with  the  understanding  that  in 
no  case  should  the  cantonal  or  city  support  be  les- 
sened because  of  the  Federal  support. 

Switzerland,  following  Holland's  lead  of  1900, 
was  thus  the  second  country  to  make  national 
provision  for  school  meals.  The  point  which  dis- 
tinguishes her  legislation  from  either  Holland's  or 
the  English  Provision  of  Meals  Act  of  1906,  is  that 
the  Federal  ruling  of  1903  was  obligatory. 

Before  Federal  funds  were  available,  it  was  the 
custom  to  use  the  money  raised  by  the  tax  on 

8  Educational  Act,  January,  1903.    Art.  2,  Section  8. 


134  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

alcohol  to  pay  for  the  lunches,  and  this  form  of 
poetic  justice  is  still  effective  in  several  cantons. 
Another  source  of  income,  before  the  state  assumed 
more  direct  responsibility,  was  from  the  "  school 
funds"  (Schulkassen)  that  had  their  origin  in  a 
quaint  old  custom  of  the  young  people  giving  a 
sort  of  thank-offering  to  the  village  for  their  school- 
ing when  the  time  came  for  them  to  be  married. 
These  funds,  which  were  the  precursors  of  the 
Caisses  d'ficoles  of  France,  were  used  to  encourage 
school  attendance,  by  supplying  medals  and  books 
and  to  support  vacation  colonies,  school  baths  and 
other  outside  activities  of  the  school. 

The  latest  report  on  school  feeding  in  Switzer- 
land, made  in  1908  by  Dr.  Erismann,  the  head 
medical  inspector  in  Zurich,  showed  that  eighteen 
of  the  nineteen  large  cities  have  provisions  for 
school  meals. 

The  movement  is  not  confined  to  the  cities,  but 
has  developed  quite  as  much  in  the  country  districts. 
Thus  the  central  authorities  reported  that  eighteen 
of  the  twenty-five  cantons  give  subsidies  for  school 
meals. 

Sufficient  data  are  not  available  to  make  a  definite 
statement  of  the  exact  number  of  towns  having 


IN  EUROPEAN  COUNTRIES  135 

school  meals,  the  number  of  children  fed,  etc., 
but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  lack'  of  provision  is  the 
exception. 

The  subsidies  from  state  and  canton  frequently 
cover  50  per  cent,  of  the  entire  cost,  and  a  good 
share  of  the  remainder  is  paid  by  city  or  village 
funds,  leaving  only  a  very  small  part  to  be  raised 
by  private  endeavor. 

The  subsidies  are  distributed  to  the  schools  in 
different  ways.  In  some  places  the  state  or  canton 
or  both  are  responsible  for  a  certain  percentage  of 
the  entire  cost,  whatever  this  may  be.  In  others  a 
special  rate  per  child  is  decided  upon,  as  for  example, 
in  Uri,  the  state  provides  an  annual  amount,  25 
cents  per  child,  and  the  canton  supplies  the  balance 
of  the  cost.  The  larger  cities  provide  their  own 
funds,  with  only  a  slight  subsidy  from  the  cantons 
or  state. 

An  idea  of  the  exact  care  with  which  the  meals  are 
administered  may  be  gained  from  conditions  in 
the  city  of  Zurich,  which  may  be  regarded  as 
typical  of  those  in  Switzerland  as  a  whole.  In  this 
city,  parents  fill  out  application  blanks  for  the  meals 
in  the  same  way  that  they  do  in  Bradford  and 
Charlottenburg.     (Appendices  C,  D.)    There  are 


136  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

careful  regulations  for  the  conduct  of  the  meals 
themselves,  both  in  their  preparation  and  service. 
The  bread  must  be  cut  so  that  each  slice  weighs  ioo 
grams.  Bread  and  cheese  or  bread  and  sausage 
are  served  only  after  the  child  has  eaten  at  least  one 
plate  of  soup. 

The  boys  and  girls  eat  at  separate  tables,  each 
group  being  made  up  of  older  and  younger  chil- 
dren, in  a  "  family."  The  older  children  are  ex- 
pected to  look  after  the  younger  ones,  and  see  that 
they  get  all  they  want.  In  some  of  the  schools  hav- 
ing kitchens  and  dining-rooms  in  the  building,  the 
older  girls  and  boys  help  in  the  clearing  away  and 
washing  of  the  dishes.  The  teachers  are  held  re- 
sponsible for  overseeing  the  work,  appointing  the 
monitors  and  keeping  the  reports. 

Care  is  taken  to  make  the  school  meals  come  up 
to  the  right  standard  of  food  value,  and  the  city 
requires  that  on  certain  days  at  least,  cheese  or 
sausage  shall  be  given  with  the  bread  and  soup. 
This  is  owing  to  the  work  of  the  chief  medical 
inspector,  Dr.  Erismann,  who  found  in  1901  that 
the  meals  were  unplanned,  and  lacking  particularly 
in  protein  and  fat. 

Dr.  Erismann  gives  the  following  points  among 
his  conclusions  in  regard  to  school  feeding,  after 


IN  EUROPEAN  COUNTRIES  137 

studying  the  question  throughout  Switzerland,  and 
after  many  years  of  practical  experience  in  Zurich.3 
What  makes  these  recommendations  of  particular 
value  is  that  each  one  has  been  tried  out  in  prac- 
tice in  some  part  of  Switzerland. 

i.  Provisions  for  a  free  meal  at  noon  should  be  made  every- 
where, and  meals  provided  for:  (a)  school  children 
coming  a  long  distance  each  day  from  home;  (b) 
school  children  who  are  undernourished  on  account  of 
the  poverty  of  their  parents;  (c)  school  children  whose 
parents  are  away  at  noon. 

2.  Children  whose  parents  so  desire  should  be  able  to  buy  a 

meal  at  cost,  where  there  is  no  question  of  poverty. 
The  price  asked  should  never  exceed  the  actual  cost  of 
the  food. 

3.  All  children  who  on  account  of  poverty  do  not  receive  a 

sufficiently  nourishing  breakfast  should  be  given  warm 
milk  and  bread  at  school  before  lessons. 

4.  The  school  lunch  should  be  a  full  nourishing  meal.     The 

portions  should  have  enough  food  value  to  furnish  816 
Calories  or  one-half  the  day's  required  total  of  Calories 
per  child.  It  should  be  especially  rich  in  protein  and 
fat  and  the  food  values  should  be  distributed  in  about 
the  following  amounts:  40  grams  protein,  26  grams 
fat,  100  grams  carbohydrate  for  a  ten-year-old  child. 
Proper  variety  should  be  insisted  on. 

5.  The  supply  of  food  to  poor  children  must  never  be  re- 

garded as  charity  or  pauperizing  in  any  way. 

1  Erismann,  Dr.  R,  Stadtrat,  Zurich,  Ernahrung  und  Kleid- 
ung  durftiger  Schulkinder,  1908. 


138  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

Dr.  Erismann's  outline  shows  the  ideal  held  by 
workers  in  school  meals  in  Switzerland.  This  ideal 
is  already  carried  out  in  many  parts  of  the  country. 
Stated  in  brief  it  calls  for  school  lunches  for  all, 
free  to  those  who  cannot  pay,  as  a  help  to  efficient 
education,  and  of  such  a  character  as  to  raise  the 
physical  standard  of  the  children's  development. 

REFEZIONE  SCOLASTICA  IN  ITALIAN  CITIES 

School  feeding  as  a  municipal  venture  began  in 
1896,  when  the  Council  at  San  Remo  reorganized 
as  a  regular  city  institution  the  system  of  school 
meals,  till  then  supported  privately.  Other  cities 
followed  San  Remo's  example  until  at  present  there 
are  fifty  cities  with  school  feeding  organizations, 
over  half  of  which  are  supported  and  administered 
entirely  by  the  community,  and  the  rest  of  which 
are  administered  by  specially  subsidized  voluntary 
committees  under  the  supervision  of  the  city  officials. 

Milan-. — The  work  in  Milan  is  typical  of  the 
Italian  organizations  generally.  It  was  begun  in 
1894  by  a  semi-official  body  known  as  the  Com- 
mittee of  Patronage.  In  1900,  the  city,  then  under 
a  conservative  administration,  assumed  control  and 
introduced  a  system  of  lunches  into  all  schools. 

At  first  these  lunches  consisted  simply  of  sand- 


IN  EUROPEAN  COUNTRIES  139 

wiches  made  with  sausage,  cheese  or  sliced  meat, 
costing  i  or  1.2  cents.  In  1904  warm  meals  were 
introduced  in  certain  schools  and  are  gradually 
being  installed  in  all,  consisting  of  soup  and  bread, 
or  rice  pilaff,  meat  or  cheese  and  macaroni.  Olive 
oil  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  these  dishes  so  that 
there  is  a  maximum  of  food  value.  The  portions 
are  slightly  larger  for  the  older  children;  for  ex- 
ample, the  bread  is  cut  so  that  the  three  younger 
classes  receive  120  grams  and  the  three  older  classes 
150  grams;  the  rice  is  served  in  portions  of  300 
grams  for  the  little  children  and  355  grams  for  the 
older  ones.  Delicate  children  are  given  eggs  in 
place  of  the  regular  menus. 

The  entire  cost  including  preparation  and  ad- 
ministration of  the  warm  lunch  is  1.4.  The  meal 
tickets  are  one  and  one-half  cents. 

There  are  at  present  an  average  of  17,600  chil- 
dren in  daily  attendance  and  these  form  38  per  cent, 
of  the  entire  enrolment.  Of  these  30  per  cent,  re- 
ceive their  meals  free.  The  total  expense  to  the 
city  was  $81,322  in  1908-1909.  This  amount  in- 
cludes the  special  fee  paid  to  the  teachers  who  super- 
vise the  children  and  eat  with  them. 

One  of  the  results  of  the  school  lunches  in  Milan 
has  been  to  decrease  the  number  of  absences.     Be- 


140  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

fore  1894  the  average  daily  absence  was  28  per  cent 
of  the  school  enrolment;  this  number  steadily  fell 
until  11  years  later  the  average  number  of  absences 
formed  but  6  per  cent,  of  the  school  enrolment. 

Other  Cities. — In  general  the  Refezione  Scolas- 
tica  are,  like  the  Paris  Cantines,  designed  to  be 
school  restaurants,  open  to  all  who  may  care  to 
come.  As  a  result  a  larger  proportion  of  school 
children  attend  than  is  the  case  in  any  other  country. 
In  the  large  cities,  Rome,  Genoa,  Padua,  Venice, 
etc.,  the  meals  are  attended  by  about  one-half  of 
the  children  and  are  paid  for  in  a  large  majority 
of  cases.  The  average  attendance  in  forty-three 
cities  was  about  100,000  in  1908- 1909,  and  this 
formed  37  per  cent,  of  the  entire  school  population, 
while  in  several  the  attendance  rose  to  over  70  per 
cent.  The  total  expense  to  the  cities  in  44  cases 
was  nearly  $215,000  in  this  year.4 

Experiments  with  Free  and  Compulsory  Feed- 
ing*— In  several  towns  the  experiment  was  tried, 
of  having  the  meals  free  for  all  and  attendance  upon 
them  compulsory  in  the  same  way  that  school  at- 

*  Information  sent  to  writer  by  Alessandro  Schiavi,  direc- 
tor of  Bureau  of  Labor,  of  the  Societa  Umanitaria,  Milan. 

"Lancet  Reports,  and  Spargo's  Bitter  Cry  of  the  Children, 
App.  A  and  B. 


IN  EUROPEAN  COUNTRIES  141 

tendance  is  compulsory.  In  Vercelli,  the  best  known 
of  these  places,  it  was  not  altogether  a  success, 
because  it  was  found  too  expensive  to  provide  a 
really  adequate  meal  for  all,  free.  If  a  cold  meal 
with  a  rather  low  food  value  was  served  it  was 
possible  to  provide  for  all,  but  this  did  not  meet 
the  real  need.  After  six  years  of  trial  Vercelli 
returned  to  a  method  similar  to  that  of  Milan,  where 
warm  meals  are  served  to  a  large  proportion  of  the 
children,  but  are  free  only  to  those  children  who 
are  known  to  be  unable  to  pay.6 

Padua. — The  work  in  Padua  is  distinguished  for 
being  the  first  in  the  world  where  an  attempt  was 
made  to  have  the  school  meals  planned  scientifically 
to  meet  the  special  needs  of  the  children.  Dr. 
Tonsig,  the  director  of  medical  inspection,  plans  the 
meals  so  that  they  furnish  one-half  of  the  day's 
total  need  and  are  so  proportioned  that  three- 
quarters  of  the  necessary  fat  and  protein  are  pro- 
vided. The  fact  that  69  per  cent,  of  the  children 
attend  the  meals  makes  this  careful  planning  of 
considerable  importance.  Padua's  example  has  been 
followed  in  many  other  cities. 

"Letter  from  the  Director  of  Public  Instruction  in  Ver- 
celli to  His  Excellency  Mayor  des  Planches,  the  Italian 
Ambassador  at  Washington,  June  11,  1910. 


142  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

In  the  smaller  Italian  towns  and  villages  the  cus- 
tom is  followed  of  having  the  meals  served  out  of 
doors  in  fine  weather.  In  several  places  it  is  re- 
ported that  street  begging  of  the  children  ceased 
after  the  introduction  of  the  meals. 

To  summarize :  School  feeding  is  now  thoroughly 
established  in  Italian  cities,  most  of  which  provide 
school  restaurants  serving  daily  on  an  average  over 
a  third  and  in  many  cases  over  two-thirds  of  the 
children.  The  large  numbers  involved  make  the 
Italian  school  meals  more  important  from  an  edu- 
cational point  of  view  than  they  are  in  any  other 
country.  The  meals  are  supervised  by  teachers  who 
are  paid  an  additional  fee  for  these  services.  Special 
care  is  given  to  the  scientific  planning  of  the  meals  to 
serve  the  physiological  needs  of  growing  children. 

One  specially  interesting  thing  about  the  Italian 
school  feeding  is  that  it  was  begun  in  San  Remo 
15  years  ago  when  the  majority  of  the  council 
happened  to  be  Socialists.  For  this  reason,  the 
movement  was  looked  upon  with  distrust  and  was 
opposed  by  conservatives  in  San  Remo  and  other 
cities.  But  the  good  effect  of  the  meals  on  school 
progress  was  so  apparent  as  to  overcome  political 
prejudice,  and  now  the  different  parties  vie  with 


IN  EUROPEAN  COUNTRIES  143 

each  other  in  formulating  in  their  platforms  at- 
tractive plans  for  school  feeding.  Moreover  the 
majority  of  the  meals  are  paid  for  and  this  Social- 
istic activity  contrary  to  prophecies  has  not  resulted 
in  the  "  pauperization  "  of  the  children. 

Austria. — There  is  no  national  school  feeding 
movement  in  Austria,  but  most  of  the  larger  cities 
have  organized  provisions.  In  Vienna  a  central 
school  feeding  society  has  been  in  existence  for  over 
twenty  years,  having  charge  of  the  work  through- 
out the  city.  In  1907- 1908  the  meals  were  served 
to  10,583  children  at  a  total  expense  of  $35,737, 
of  which  $20,000  was  furnished  as  a  city  subsidy. 
In  spite  of  this  activity,  all  who  need  it  are  not  fed 
and  the  meals  are  continued  for  four  winter  months 
only.  The  meals  are  inadequate  in  every  way, 
especially  in  the  outlying  districts.  For  these 
reasons  the  city  is  gradually  assuming  direct  con- 
trol. Kitchens  and  dining-rooms  were  built  in  1909 
in  four  new  public  schools  and  this  work  is  being 
extended  in  all  city  schools. 

Sweden. — Most  large  Swedish  towns  have  well 
organized  systems  of  school  meals,  some  of  them 
twenty  years  old.     The  majority  of  these  are  ad- 


144  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

ministered  by  subsidized  societies  with  cooperation 
by  the  school  authorities.  In  larger  and  newer  city 
schools,  kitchens  and  dining-rooms  are  provided 
and  the  work  is  being  gradually  taken  into  direct 
control  by  the  city  authorities.  From  8  to  32  per 
cent,  of  the  children  in  the  different  cities  attend  the 
meals. 

The  principle  is  everywhere  recognized  of  pro- 
viding food  for  the  poorest  children  first.  In  some 
places  a  regular  dinner  of  soup,  meat  and  bread  is 
given  every  day  in  the  week  to  the  very  poorest 
children,  and  on  three  days  only  to  others.  In  some 
places  breakfasts  of  milk  and  soup  are  served. 
Where  there  are  cooking  classes,  these  prepare  each 
day  the  meals  for  a  small  number,  not  usually  more 
than  twenty.  The  teachers  pick  out  the  poorest 
children  and  meals  are  given  free  or  at  a  slight 
cost,  according  to  the  ability  of  the  children's  par- 
ents to  pay,  as  determined  by  special  investigation. 

In  Sweden  the  problem  of  school  feeding  in 
country  districts  has  received  considerable  atten- 
tion, because  the  schools  are  so  far  apart  that  in 
some  cases,  the  children  have  to  walk  as  much  as 
twelve  miles  each  day  to  and  from  school.  As  a 
result,  in  about  twenty  places  the  system  of  warm 


IN  EUROPEAN  COUNTRIES  145 

midday  meals  has  been  introduced.  In  some  cases 
these  meals  are  simply  warm  milk  and  cocoa,  or 
soup,  designed  to  supplement  the  lunches  from 
home,  and  in  others  a  regular  meal  is  given. 

Norway. — Christiania  has  had  a  municipal  ser- 
vice of  meals  since  1897.  A  midday  meal  is  pro- 
vided every  day  during  the  fall  and  winter  terms. 
There  is  a  large  school  kitchen  on  the  Bradford 
plan  from  which  the  meals  are  sent  to  the  different 
schools,  each  one  of  which  is  equipped  with  a  special 
dining-room.  Two  days  in  the  week  meat  is  given 
and  the  other  days  cereal  with  milk,  and  every 
child  is  allowed  as  much  as  it  wants.  During  the 
year  1907- 1908,  6000  children  out  of  a  total  of 
30,000  were  fed,  and  a  great  majority  of  the  meals 
were  free,  only  11  per  cent,  being  paid  for,  at  a 
rate  of  2.5  cents  apiece.  School  meals  are  found 
in  many  other  Norwegian  cities. 

Belgium. — Belgium  has  no  compulsory  school 
law,  but  it  has  a  school  feeding  problem.  The  gen- 
eral custom  in  cities  is  to  provide  food  at  least  in 
the  kindergartens  and  in  the  guardian  schools  which 
are  for  very  poor  children,  or  for  children  whose 
parents  work  away  from  home  at  day.  In  many 
10 


146  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

places  there  are  subsidized  organizations  providing 
meals  in  the  regular  elementary  schools.  In  1888 
a  private  society,  with  the  consent  of  the  educa- 
tional authorities,  began  to  provide  a  warm  meal 
at  noon  for  the  poorest  children.  Six  years  later 
an  investigation  of  underfeeding  was  made  by  the 
school  authorities  and  from  daily  reports  by  teachers 
and  directors  covering  14,500  cases,  it  was  found 
that  23  per  cent,  were  underfed.  As  a  result  the 
city  granted  a  subsidy  of  $1000  to  the  society,  to 
provide  meals,  and  by  1906  this  subsidy  had  been 
more  than  doubled. 

Denmark. — In  1902  a  provisory  law  was  passed 
allowing  municipal  subsidies  to  private  societies  for 
school  feeding,  whose  work  in  some  cities  was  over 
30  years  old.  Although  a  number  of  cities  have 
adopted  the  act,  in  1907  a  campaign  was  begun 
for  compulsory  national  legislation,  because  it 
has  been  found  that  while  meals  were  more 
and  more  a  necessity  in  city  schools,  local  initiative 
and  private  effort  even  with  the  help  of  city  sub- 
sidies, could  not  be  relied  upon  to  furnish  them  in 
an  adequate  manner. 


VII 
Lunches  in  American  Elementary  Schools 


LUNCHES   AND   EXPERIMENTS   IN 
NEW   YORK    CITY 

"  Again  I  appeal  to  you,  in  the  name  of  suffer- 
ing childhood,  to  establish  in  each  school  facilities 
whereby  the  pupils  may  obtain  simple  wholesome 
food  at  cost  price.',  Superintendent  Maxwell  of 
New  York  City  made  this  appeal  in  his  annual  re- 
port for  1908.  The  following  fall,  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  Board  of  Education,  a  school  lunch 
committee  was  formed  of  physicians  and  social 
workers  who  undertook  to  find  out  if  a  three  cent 
lunch  might  be  made  self-supporting. 

They  chose  two  schools  for  the  experiment,  one 
Public  School  21,  in  the  Italian  district  on  the  lower 
East  Side,  and  the  other  Public  School  51,  in  a  dis- 
trict on  the  middle  West  Side  where  the  population 
is  largely  Irish-American.  After  two  years  the 
Board  of  Education  formally  endorsed  the  lunches 
and  gave  permission  to  instal  them  in  other  schools, 
with  the  understanding  that  the  Board  would  sup- 

i47 


148  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

ply  rooms,  equipment,  and  gas,  and  that  the  cost  of 
the  food  and  of  service  must  be  met  by  the  sale 
of  meal  tickets.  The  lunches  are  now  being  served 
in  seven  schools  in  Manhattan  under  the  auspices 
of  the  School  Lunch  Committee.  Certain  schools 
in  Brooklyn  and  Flushing  have  also  been  equipped 
to  serve  lunches  through  the  efforts  of  individual 
workers. 

ORGANIZATION   OF  LUNCHES 

In  each  school  there  is  a  superintendent  who  does 
the  buying  and  oversees  the  cooking  and  serving. 
A  cook  is  employed  at  $i  a  day.  In  the  Mott  Street 
School,  No.  21,  the  meals  are  served  in  the  base- 
ment yard  and  the  quarters  are  crowded  so  that  the 
children  have  to  stand  at  long  tables. 

Certain  of  the  older  children  are  chosen  for 
helpers,  and  sell  tickets,  help  serve,  and  clean  and 
wash  up  afterwards.  For  this  they  are  given  their 
lunches  each  day.  They  wear  white  caps  and  aprons 
and  those  who  handle  the  bread  wear  white  gloves. 

The  working  out  of  the  dietaries  is  in  the  hands 
of  a  physician  who  has  planned  them  not  only  in 
accordance  with  the  special  needs  of  growing  chil- 
dren but  with  reference  also  to  the  national  customs 


t  1 

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WASHING  UP  AFTER  NEW  YORK  SCHOOL  LUNCH 


PREPARATION  OF  NEW  YORK  SCHOOL  LUNCH 


LUNCHES  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS     149 

of  the  local  population.  This  means  that  there  is 
considerable  difference  in  the  menus  of  the  differ- 
ent schools.  The  lunches  are  designed  to  provide  at 
least  one-quarter  of  the  necessary  daily  ration  of 
the  children ;  as  a  rule  one-third,  sometimes  one-half, 
is  actually  provided.  The  main  dish  is  usually  a 
substantial  soup  or  stew  or  a  thick  rice  pudding, 
served  with  big  pieces  of  bread.  In  addition  there 
are  "  extras "  or  desserts,  such  as  cocoa,  fruit, 
cakes,  lettuce  sandwiches  and  bowls  of  vegetable 
salad,  which  cost  a  cent  apiece.  There  is  a  rule 
that  no  child  may  buy  an  "  extra "  until  he  has 
eaten  the  regular  food. 

EXPENSES   IN   TWO   SCHOOLS 

During  1909-1910  the  lunches  served  in  the 
Italian  district  cost  $.047  apiece.  Those  in  the 
Irish-American  district  cost  $.048  apiece.  During 
the  year  there  was  a  total  expenditure  in  the  two 
schools  of  $2,453.  Because  of  the  fact  that  a 
number  of  children  were  served  free  and  because 
of  the  expense  entailed  by  an  inadequate  equipment, 
the  receipts  for  the  meal  tickets  did  not  quite  cover 
the  expenses.  There  was  a  daily  deficit  of  about 
one  cent  per  meal.    The  School  Lunch  Committee 


150  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

estimates  that  the  lunches  may  be  made  self-sup- 
porting if  there  are  three  hundred  children  buying 
them  daily  at  each  school  and  that  this  would  suffice 
to  cover  the  relatively  few  free  lunches.  In  the 
first  half  of  the  year  1910-1911  the  number  of 
children  fed  daily  in  Public  School  21  averaged  230, 
of  which  30  were  fed  free,  which  means  that  the 
lunches  came  nearer  to  being  self-supporting. 

RESULT   OF   FEEDING  ON    WEIGHT' 

In  order  to  find  out  what  effect  one  meal  a  day 
might  have  on  the  development  of  these  children, 
a  careful  record  was  kept  during  three  months  of 
the  weights  of  143  children  who  attended  the  meals 
regularly.  At  the  same  time  weight  records  were 
kept  of  81  children  who  did  not  eat  the  lunches  at 
school.  At  the  end  of  three  months,  the  children 
taking  lunches  showed  a  total  net  gain  of  91  lbs. 
4  oz.,  while  the  net  gain  of  the  81  children  not  tak- 
ing the  lunches  was  17  pounds.  This  makes  the 
average  gain  of  the  children  taking  the  school 
lunches  10.2  ounces,  while  that  of  the  children  not 
taking  the  lunches  was  3.4  ounces.  It  was  found 
that  in  both  groups  a  certain  number  showed  a  loss 
in  weight,  but  that  the  proportion  of  those  losing 


LUNCHES  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS     151 

was  considerably  less  in  the  group  taking  the  lunch. 
Careful  study  of  the  original  figures  shows  that 
the  result  of  the  feeding  was  not  that  the  children 
who  increased  in  weight  gained  so  much  more 
rapidly  than  is  usual,  but  that  more  of  them  gained. 
This  emphasizes  the  real  effect  for  good  in  one 
planned  meal  a  day  at  school. 

SCHOOL   LUNCHES    IN    PHILADELPHIA 

School  lunches  are  more  than  15  years  old  in 
Philadelphia  and  have  existed  ever  since  the  Starr 
Center  Association  began  them  by  serving  lunches 
at  the  forenoon  recess  in  several  schools.  At  pres- 
ent the  management  of  the  lunches  has  been  taken 
over  by  the  Home  and  School  League  and  the  work 
extended  to  include  some  ten  schools.  The  meals 
provided  are  of  two  sorts.  In  some  schools  there 
is  a  forenoon  lunch  given  at  10.30,  during  recess 
time.  In  others  a  fuller  meal  is  offered  during  the 
noon  intermission,  in  addition  to  the  forenoon 
lunch.  In  all  of  them  the  meals  are  paid  for  by 
the  children  and  range  in  price  from  one  cent,  which 
is  the  cost  of  the  forenoon  lunch,  to  three  or  five 
cents,  which  purchases  the  fuller  meal  provided  at 
noon. 


*'•     %i.,-*r'T 


152  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

Each  morning  after  the  opening  exercises,  the 
teachers  in  the  schools  providing  the  noon  meals 
ask  the  question,  "  Which  children  wish  to  buy- 
lunch  tickets  to-day  ? "  Then  those  who  want 
lunches  go  forward  to  the  teacher's  desk  and  buy 
little  yellow  lunch  tickets  which  cost  three  cents 
each.  The  teacher  marks  their  names  in  a  special 
roll  and  makes  out  and  sends  to  the  school  kitchen  an 
order  slip  stating  the  number  of  lunches  desired. 

At  noon,  the  children,  after  washing  their  hands 
and  faces,  go  to  the  room  that  is  set  apart  as  a 
dining-room,  where  are  long  tables  covered  with 
white  oilcloth  and  set  with  black  japanned  trays, 
on  which  are  paper  napkins,  and  part  of  the  lunch 
— usually  bread  and  apple  butter,  or  stewed  or  fresh 
fruit  or  a  few  dates.  Then  as  the  children  seat 
themselves,  at  high,  low,  or  middle  size  tables, 
according  to  their  needs,  the  servers  in  white  aprons 
bring  white  enamel  bowls  filled  with  soup,  corn 
chowder,  rice  pudding  or  whatever  is  the  warm 
dish  of  the  day.  Each  child  gives  up  the  little  ticket, 
which  is  destroyed  after  being  counted. 

Besides  the  long  tables  there  is  a  small  one  on 
which  are  displayed  plates  of  Graham  crackers, 
dates,  and  most  attractive  of  all,  little  cakes  of  sweet 


LUNCHES  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS     153 

chocolate  in  tin-foil  wrappers,  three  for  a  cent. 
Children  who  have  not  eaten  the  lunch  cannot  buy 
the  chocolate,  but  the  other  things  may  be  bought 
by  children  who  either  want  to  supplement  a  lunch 
brought  from  home,  or  who  have  not  three  cents 
to  spend.  There  is  always  one  warm  dish  to  be  had 
for  a  penny  in  this  way,  sometimes  bean  soup,  some- 
times warm  milk  and  a  half  of  a  shredded  wheat 
biscuit. 

In  the  schools  where  the  forenoon  lunches  are 
served,  the  standard  price  is  one  cent  and  for  this 
amount  the  child  can  buy  a  simple  dish  such  as  bean 
soup,  rice  pudding,  milk  toast,  creamed  potato, 
milk,  cocoa,  or  stewed  fruit  and  shredded  wheat. 
In  all  of  the  schools  the  principals  and  teachers 
enthusiastically  co-operate  in  the  work  and  fre- 
quently buy  the  lunches  themselves.  Sometimes 
they  sit  down  with  the  children  to  eat  and  some- 
times the  lunches  are  sent  to  their  rest  rooms. 

EQUIPMENT 

The  special  equipment  necessitated  by  the  lunches 
is  simple.  Each  kitchen  is  fitted  with  a  gas  stove, 
large  double  boilers,  agate  kettles,  and  a  porcelain 
sink  with  drainer.     The  tables  are  made  of  long 


154  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

boards  resting  on  horses  and  so  are  easily  taken 
down  and  set  up  if  the  lunch  room  has  to  be  used 
for  other  purposes.  The  tableware  consists  of  white 
enamelled  pint  bowls,  white  enamelled  half  pint 
cups,  little  trays  and  spoons.  Paper  napkins  are 
supplied  free  by  a  department  store  for  the  adver- 
tisement that  comes  from  the  legend  "  Buy  it  at 
E 's  "  which  is  printed  on  each. 

CLEANLINESS 

The  clearing  up  and  washing  of  the  dishes  is 
done  by  "  aids,"  chosen  from  among  the  older  chil- 
dren, who  receive  their  lunch  free  for  this  service. 
The  children  are  not  left  to  themselves  in  this  work, 
but  are  carefully  watched  by  the  worker  in  charge, 
who  sees  that  the  dishes  are  washed  perfectly  clean 
and  then  sterilizes  them  by  pouring  boiling  water 
over  them.  Once  a  week  all  the  dishes  are  boiled. 
The  dish  cloths  are  washed  and  boiled  daily  after 
using. 

DIETARIES 

The  extreme  care  in  the  planning  of  the  dietaries, 
the  arrangement  of  food  values  in  the  menus  and 
the  careful  accounting  system  are  the  most  striking 
things  about  the  lunches.    The  superintendent  plans 


THREE-CENT    DINNER    IN    PHILADELPHIA   SCHOOLS. 
IN   UPPER   PICTURE 


NOTE    "PENNY    TABLE 


LUNCHES  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS     155 

the  lunches  a  week  ahead  in  each  of  the  schools, 
having  a  personal  interview  with  each  school 
worker.  She  does  all  the  buying,  and  so  is  sure 
of  the  quality  of  the  food  used. 

In  order  to  simplify  the  planning  of  the  menus, 
she  keeps  a  card  catalog  of  the  different  dishes 
served,  giving  the  amount  and  exact  food  value  of 
each  constituent,  and  the  total  number  of  Calories 
per  portion,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  card. 

A  minimum  requirement  that  is  observed  in  plan- 
ning each  lunch  is  that  one  cent  shall  buy  at  least 
ioo  Calories  of  food  value,  and  as  a  rule,  one  cent 
buys  more  than  this.  The  menus  show  considerable 
variety,  but  dishes  that  are  very  popular  like  rice 
pudding,  cocoa  and  bean  soup  are  given  often. 

RECORDS 

A  monthly  account  of  the  menus,  receipts  and 
expenditures  in  each  school  is  kept  by  the  superin- 
tendent on  loose-leaf  pages  like  the  one  shown  in 
Table  6. 


156 


SCHOOL  FEEDING 


Table  5.    Sample  Recipe  Card  Showing  Constituents  and 
Fuel  Values  of  Ingredients 


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LUNCHES  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS     157 

Table  6.  Monthly  Account  Sheet  in  Use  for  Philadelphia 
Lunches 

Washington  School :   Saleswoman,  Mary  Shephard 
school  luncheon  account 

December    1-2    Luncheon  receipts — 1st  week $4.12 

December    5-19  Luncheon  receipts — 2nd  week 10.79 

December  12-16  Luncheon  receipts — 3rd  week 11.63 

December  197-23  Luncheon  receipts — 4th  week 13.18 

Total $3972 

Crackers    $27.96 

Milk   (9.12 — 1. 14  discount) 7.98 

Sugar,  9  lbs 45 

Cereals :    Oatmeal,  4  lbs 20 

Soup  bones,  3    15 

Rice,  3  lbs 25 

Hominy    

Fresh  Fruits  

Chestnuts,  4  qts 28 

Dried  Fruits,  Prunes 09 

Vegetables,  Potatoes,  Onions 07 

Salt,    Pepper,    Cinnamon,    Nutmeg    

Soap    05 

Total   $3748 

Total  receipts   $39-72 

Total  expenditures  37-48 

Balance  on  hand  December  23 $2.24 

The  saleswomen  at  the  schools  keep  daily  accounts 
of  the  menus,  the  number  served,  and  the  money 
collected,  delivering  the  cards  weekly  to  the  super- 
intendent. The  card  shown  happens  to  be  one  used 
in  connection  with  the  penny  lunch  at  10.30. 


158 


SCHOOL  FEEDING 


Table  7.    Daily  Record  Card  Kept  by  Saleswoman  at 
School  Lunch 


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LUNCHES  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS     159 

FOLLOW-UP  WORK 

During  the  first  year  the  committee  in  charge 
of  the  lunches  definitely  experimented  to  find  out 
which  form  is  best  suited  to  the  need  of  each  of 
the  various  localities.  One  school  in  a  very  poor 
district  where  large  numbers  of  the  children  come 
from  families  frequently  dependent  on  public  or 
private  charity,  is  provided  with  both  a  forenoon 
lunch  and  a  three  cent  dinner  at  noon.  A  second 
school,  in  a  slightly  better  district,  was  equipped 
with  a  forenoon  lunch.  A  third,  in  an  even  better, 
though  still  poor  district,  was  equipped  with  a  noon- 
day dinner. 

A  Home  Visitor  who  was  a  graduate  dietitian 
visited  the  homes  of  all  the  children  in  the 
three  schools,  but  gave  special  attention  to  the 
children  who  were  registered  as  attending  the 
lunches  and  to  those  obviously  underfed.  She 
got  as  complete  an  account  as  possible  of  the  con- 
ditions there,  and  talked  to  the  mother  especially 
about  the  food  of  her  children.  She  tried  to  per- 
suade the  mothers  to  send  the  children  regularly  to 
the  lunches,  whose  use  and  value  she  explained.    In 


160  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

the  case  of  children  obviously  underfed,  she  advised 
the  mother  as  to  the  necessary  food  and  treatment. 
If  there  was  special  need  she  referred  the  case  to 
the  Society  for  Organized  Charity  or  some  other 
philanthropic  body. 

This  part  of  the  work  was  shown  to  be  most 
valuable,  and  the  Home  Visitor  was  retained  in- 
definitely as  a  salaried  member  of  the  committee. 

SCHOOL    LUNCHES    AND    CHILDREN'S    DEVELOPMENT 

During  1910-1911  two  studies  were  made  of  the 
physical  development  and  school  progress  of  the 
children  attending  the  lunches.1  In  the  first  experi- 
ment, measurements  were  taken  and  recorded  of 
362  children  from  two  schools  of  whom  114  were 
in  more  or  less  regular  attendance  at  the  noon  three 
cent  dinner  and  248  were  not.  Among  the  children 
taking  the  meals  the  average  number  of  dinners 
per  child  was  50.6.  Measurements  were  made  of 
weight,  height,  hand-strength  and  lung  capacity  of 
the  two  groups  of  children  at  the  beginning  and 

1  Annual  Report  of  the  School  Lunch  Committee,  Home 
and  School  League,  Philadelphia,  191 1,  page  12. 


LUNCHES  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS    161 

end  of  a  six  months'  period.    The  gains  of  the  two 
groups  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  table : 

Table  8.  Average  Gains  of  Children  Attending  Lunches 
Voluntarily  for  Six  Months  Compared  with  Average 
Gains  of  Children  Not  Attending  the  School  Lunches. 

Hand-  Lung 

Weight        Height      Strength  Capacity 

114  "diners"  3-44  lbs.  1.36  m.  3.43  lbs.  12.55  cu.  in. 

248  "non-diners"  ...  3.21  lbs.  1.07m.  4.18 lbs.  10.47 cu.  in. 


In  favor  of  "diners"  .231b.   .29  in.   .75  lb.   2.09 cu.  in. 

This  experiment  was  designed  to  show  the  result 
of  what  might  be  called  haphazard  feeding.  No 
special  attempt  was  made  to  have  the  children  at- 
tend the  meals.  They  came  or  not  according  to 
their  own  choice  and  the  attendance  was  irregular. 

The  second  experiment  was  one  in  which  the 
factors  were  more  definitely  controlled.  The  prin- 
cipal of  an  elementary  school  was  called  on  to  choose 
80  children  who  were  conspicuously  poor  and  ill- 
nourished.  Of  these  40  were  given  a  daily  dinner 
for  three  months.  The  40  children  who  were  fed 
averaged  55.3  dinners  each.  At  the  beginning  and 
the  end  of  the  period  records  were  kept  of  the 
weight,  height,  hand-strength  and  lung  capacity  of 
11 


162  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

the  two  groups  of  children.    The  average  gains  of 
the  two  groups  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Table  9.  Average  Gains  During  Three  Months  of  Chil- 
dren Fed  Regularly  Compared  with  Average  Gains  of  a 
Similar  Group  of  Children  Not  Fed  Regularly. 

Hand-  Lung 

Weight         Height      Strength  Capacity 

Children   fed    1.78  lbs.    .00  in.    3.19  lbs.    11.96  cu.  in. 

Children  not  fed   ..     .80  lb.      .68  in.    4.13  lbs.      5.40  cu.  in. 


In  favor  of  children 

fed    98  lb.      .22  in.      .94  lb.        6.56  cu.  in. 

LESSON  AVERAGES  AND  CONDUCT 

The  physical  results  were  not  surprising  in  view 

of  the  many  similar  experiments  that  have  been 

tried  elsewhere.     More  interesting  was  the  study 

made  of  the  marks  in  school  work  and  conduct  of 

the  second  group  of  children.     Results  are  shown 

in  the  following  table: 

Table  10.  Showing  Comparative  Marks  in  Lessons  and 
Conduct  at  Three  Months'  Interval  of  Fed  with 
Unfed  Group  of  Children. 

Average  Average 

Lesson  Marks  Conduct  Marks 

Before  After     Gain      Before   After  Gain 

The  forty  fed  64.0    70.1      9.5        69.4    72.0      3.7 

The  forty  not  fed  64.5    69.2      7.2       74.2    76.7      33 


JUST   TO   SHOW   HOW    IT    LOOKS.       THREE-CENT   DINNER,   PHILADELPHIA 


KINDERGARTEN    CHILDREN.      THREE-CENT   DINNER,    PHILADELPHIA 


LUNCHES  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS    163 

It  will  be  noted  that  although  the  effect  of  the 
feeding  on  mental  ability  and  conduct  was  not  great, 
still  even  in  this  short  time  the  children  fed  gained 
perceptibly  over  their  comrades. 

ORGANIZATION 

The  School  Lunch  Committee  of  Philadelphia 
comprises  first,  a  small  Executive  Committee  meet- 
ing at  least  twice  a  month,  and  an  Advisory  Board 
of  twenty  members  meeting  two  or  three  times  a 
year.  The  Executive  Committee  is  organized  as 
follows : 

A  superintendent  of  lunches,  an  expert  dietitian, 
devotes  all  of  her  time  to  the  work,  planning  the 
menus,  buying  the  material  and  keeping  all  the 
accounts.  Under  her  are  the  workers  in  the  various 
schools  who  do  the  cooking,  serving  and  immediate 
supervising  of  the  lunches,  keeping  daily  account 
of  the  number  served. 

A  specially  trained  social  worker — also  a  dietitian 
— devotes  her  time  to  visiting  the  homes  of  the 
children  who  attend  the  meals. 

Two  members  of  the  Psychological  Clinic  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  serve  on  this  committee 
and  in  1910-1911  had  charge  of  the  mental  and 


164  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

physical  examinations  made  to  test  the  value  of  the 
lunches. 

Finally  there  are  two  men  who  are  financially 
responsible  and  who  act  as  adviser  and  supervisor 
of  the  committee. 

The  Advisory  Board  includes  in  addition  to  the 
Executive  Committee,  members  of  the  Board  of 
Education,  superintendents,  teachers,  school  phy- 
sicians, and  persons  engaged  in  social  and  philan- 
thropic work.  To  this  board  are  submitted  ques- 
tions of  general  policy  and  organization  and  from 
it  are  elected  sub-committees  to  work  on  particular 
problems  of  administration. 

THE    BOSTON    MORNING    LUNCH 

Although  the  matter  had  been  under  discussion 
for  some  years,  lunches  in  the  Boston  Elementary 
Schools  were  not  begun  till  1909.  Shortly  after 
a  meeting  of  the  Home  Economics  Association  in 
December,  1909,  at  which  the  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia work  was  described,  a  Hygiene  Committee 
of  the  Home  and  School  Associations  was  formed, 
with  the  late  Prof.  Ellen  H.  Richards  as  chair- 
man.2   Work  was  begun  immediately  in  one  of  the 

*  Second  Annual  Report  of  the  Boston  Home  and  School 
Association,  Oct.,  1910,  Boston,  Mass.,  pp.  32-37. 


LUNCHES  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS    165 

schools  that  was  fully  equipped  with  kitchens  for 
cooking  classes.  Before  the  end  of  the  school  year, 
there  were  lunches  in  five  other  schools.  The  cost 
of  equipping  these  with  sinks,  stoves,  kitchen 
utensils  and  table  ware,  etc.,  was  $300.  By  the  fall 
of  191 1  the  work  had  been  extended  with  addi- 
tional appropriations  to  twenty-two  schools. 

Once  the  equipment  was  supplied,  the  lunches 
have  been  entirely  self-supporting.  In  schools  where 
there  is  a  kitchen,  the  cooking  classes  prepare  and 
serve  the  meals  each  day,  and  here  the  one  cent 
paid  by  the  children  has  been  found  ample  to  cover 
the  cost  of  the  food.  In  other  schools,  outside  help 
is  hired  and  an  extra  cent  per  meal  ticket  meets 
this  expense. 

The  following  dishes  are  served :  Pea  soup  with 
crackers;  potato  chowder;  corn  meal  with  milk, 
sugar  and  crackers;  rice  and  prunes  with  milk  and 
sugar  and  crackers,  sandwiches  made  with  peanut 
butter  or  jam  and  one-half  pint  of  milk ;  apple-sago 
pudding ;  rice  pudding ;  Indian  pudding ;  apple  sauce 
and  crackers;  ginger  cookies  wth  a  glass  of  milk. 

All  of  the  food  is  chosen  with  regard  to  its 
cheapness  and  to  its  high  nutritive  value.  Of  course 
the  fact  that  the  materials  are  bought  at  wholesale 


166  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

gives  a  distinct  advantage.  In  general  each  lunch 
yields  a  fuel  value  of  300  Calories. 

The  way  in  which  it  is  possible  to  serve  so  satis- 
fying a  lunch  for  one  or  two  cents  is  explained  by 
the  statement  made  by  Mrs.  Richards,  the  food  ex- 
pert and  veteran  in  the  fight  for  the  common  health : 
"  The  milk  used  is  skimmed  milk,  costing  at  whole- 
sale about  three  cents  a  quart,  appreciably  lower- 
ing the  cost,  and  the  only  loss  in  food  value  is  the 
fat;  the  casein  of  the  milk  which  is  a  valuable  and 
expensive  element  is  as  high  as  in  whole  milk  and 
the  milk  sugar  is  retained.  That  fat  is  made  up  by 
butterine,  a  cheaper  product  than  butter  which  has, 
however,  as  great  a  food  value  and  is  as  easily 
assimilated  in  most  cases. 

"The  chairman  of  the  committee  took  the  re- 
sponsibility for  the  use  of  these  foods.  There  is 
probably  less  danger  in  this  combination  than  in 
the  whole  milk  as  commonly  found  to-day.  The 
increase  of  lactic  acid  organisms  in  the  skimmed 
milk  tends,  as  Metchnikoff  has  shown,  to  crowd 
out  others  present  and  the  conditions  of  manufac- 
turing butterine  oleomargarine  render  it  exceed- 
ingly improbable  that  disease  germs  shall  have  access 
to  the  product. 


THE    PRINCIPAL     EATS    DINNER    EACH    DAY    WITH'   THE     CHILDREN    IN     THIS 
PHILADELPHIA   SCHOOL 


THE   FIRST   SCHOOL   LUNCH   IN   PITTSBURG 


LUNCHES  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS     167 

"  Sugar  is  one  of  the  least  expensive  as  well  as 
the  cleanest  of  foods  and  is  used  freely.  The  best 
authorities  apparently  agree  that  under  four  ounces 
a  day  the  child  may  be  allowed  it  freely.  Flour 
in  the  form  of  crackers  is  also  inexpensive  and 
nutritious.  Ferguson's  bread  proved  to  be  well 
baked  and  well  liked.  There  is  little  danger  in 
loaf  bread  which  is  crusty  and  baked  through." 

The  very  fact  that  such  care  and  attention  are 
given  to  the  selection  of  a  penny's  worth  of  food 
is  a  lesson  to  the  mothers,  who  are  encouraged  to 
visit  the  lunches.  Mrs.  Richards  says,  "  To  those 
who  give  little  children  a  penny  to  spend  without 
any  suggestion  as  to  what  to  buy  with  it  or  where 
to  buy  it,  this  extreme  care  given  to  a  luncheon 
must  be  a  revelation,  and  in  time  this  influence  must 
tell  for  good.  One  of  the  worst  habits  of  children 
of  this  age  is  the  patronizing  of  the  candy  and 
pastry  shops." 

So  far,  if  reports  from  teachers  and  principals 
are  to  be  trusted,  the  lunches  have  been  an  un- 
qualified success,  from  a  school  point  of  view.  The 
children  are  more  attentive  and  interested  than  be- 
fore the  lunches  were  started  in  the  lessons  during 
the  last  hour  of  the  morning  and  this  is  shown  by 
improved  recitations. 


168  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

In  addition,  noon  lunches  are  being  introduced 
to  serve  the  needs  of  a  large  number  of  chil- 
dren, known  as  the  "  shut  outs,"  whose  mothers 
are  away  at  noon  and  who,  locked  out  from  their 
homes,  roam  the  streets.  It  is  hoped  to  form  a 
class  of  these  children  in  each  school  to  prepare 
their  own  lunch  and  this,  judging  from  the  in- 
terest the  cooking  classes  have  taken  in  working 
to  serve  real  needs,  should  be  a  successful  venture. 

CINCINNATI  PENNY  LUNCHES 

In  Cincinnati  penny  lunches  have  been  introduced 
in  five  schools  by  the  combined  efforts  of  teachers, 
the  Civic  League  and  the  Council  of  Jewish  Women. 
The  School  Board  pays  for  the  equipment  as  is  the 
custom  in  most  places.  The  following  account  is 
taken  from  a  report  of  the  Lunch  Committee  of  one 
of  the  schools  to  the  School  Board.  Superintendent 
Dyer  in  his  report  of  191 1  remarked  that  the  Board 
should  also  pay  the  cook. 

"  In  beginning  our  work  at  the  Sherman  School 
we  realized  the  fact  that  this  school  is  not  in  a 
neighborhood  where  the  direst  poverty  prevails,  but 
where  many  mothers  are  the  principal  wage-earners 
of  the  family.    They  have  to  leave  their  homes  early 


LUNCHES  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS     169 

in  the  morning,  and  this  is  one  of  the  reasons  why 
many  of  the  children  are  obliged  to  go  to  school 
without  a  nourishing  breakfast,  or  with  a  very 
meagre  one.  Before  a  penny  lunch  was  provided, 
it  was  a  frequent  occurrence  for  children  to  buy, 
during  the  forenoon  recess,  at  the  school  gates,  for 
the  penny  or  two  they  brought  with  them,  food 
that  was  anything  but  wholesome.  As  we  were 
reliably  informed  by  teachers  in  the  school,  it  was 
a  common  occurrence  to  see  children  come  into  the 
school  during  recess  with  a  pickle  in  one  hand  and  a 
cone  of  ice  cream  in  the  other.  This,  with  a  scanty 
breakfast  at  home,  in  many  cases  was  all  the  food 
obtained  by  the  children  until  their  evening  meal. 
Our  aim  is  to  give  the  children  something  that  will 
nourish  them  at  a  cost  of  one  cent. 

"  EQUIPMENT 

"  Our  first  equipment  was  donated  by  generous 
friends.  It  comprises  two  fireless  cookers,  two  gas 
cooking  stoves  without  broiler  ovens,  one  gas 
radiator,  six  wire  baskets  for  sandwiches,  four  cone 
racks  to  hold  200,.  three  wooden  chopping  bowls, 
six  large  tables  covered  with  white  oil  cloth,  six 
asbestos  lids,  one  dozen  tea  towels,  one-half  dozen 


170  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

pot  cloths,  six  paring  knives,  one  meat  grinder,  one 
sandwich  cutter,  three  granite  kettles  and  two  col- 
landers,  etc.  We  find  it  economical  not  to  use  a 
refrigerator.    All  our  supplies  are  delivered  daily. 

"the  food  that  is  provided 

"  The   following  is   a   complete   list   of  all   the 

articles  we  have  provided  in  the  lunch  room,  each 

item  of  which  is  sold  for  one  cent : 

One  hot  wiener,  with  one  slice  rye  bread. 

Hot  meat  sandwich,  consisting  of  chopped  boiled  beef,  with 

two  pieces  bread. 
One  baked  sweet  potato  in  jacket. 
Mashed  sweet  potato  in  cone. 
Rice  pudding  in  cone  (5  cent  size). 
Baked  beans  in  cone. 
Baked  beans  with  sausage  in  cone. 
Boiled  baked  dried  peas  with  sausage  in  cone. 
One  orange. 
One  apple. 
One  banana. 
Three  figs. 

Three  Graham  crackers. 
One  Graham  jelly  sandwich. 
Ice  cream  sandwich,  one  Graham  cracker  with  slice  of 

cream. 
Half  orange  peeled  and  one  Graham  cracker. 
One   candy   ball    (puffed   wheat   rolled   in   molasses   and 

sugar). 
Five  molasses  candy  kisses. 
Two  small  cakes. 


LUNCHES  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS     171 

"  We  serve  five  articles  each  day — two  of  them 
hot. 

"  We  change  the  bills  of  fare  daily.  The  follow- 
ing are  a  few  samples : 

i.  Hot  meat  sandwich;  baked  sweet  potato;  oranges; 
candy  balls;    Graham  crackers. 

2.  Hot  wieners;  rice  pudding  in  cones;  candy;  bananas; 
cakes. 

3.  Baked  beans  with  sausage;  hot  sweet  potatoes;  candy 
balls ;   ice  cream  sandwich ;   oranges. 

4.  Hot  wieners;  baked  beans  in  cone;  Graham  crackers; 
candy;   fruit. 

" PURCHASE 

"  Our  purchases  are  all  made  at  wholesale  prices. 
We  have  always  impressed  the  dealers  that  ours  is 
philanthropic,  not  charitable  work.  And  it  gives 
us  pleasure  to  state  that  we  have  always  found  them 
responsive  in  the  way  of  accommodation  and  liberal 
discounts. 

"  In  a  school  of  900  children,  we  served  on  an 
average  600  daily.  We  used  twenty  loaves  of 
bread— fourteen  of  rye,  weighing  18  ounces  each, 
and  six  of  white,  weighing  12  ounces  each.  We 
used  daily  either  twenty-five  pounds  of  wieners  or 
fifteen  pounds  of  choice  solid  beef,  boiled  and 
chopped  and  mixed  with  bread  crumbs  for  sand- 


172  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

wiches.  We  used  daily  either  one  and  one-quarter 
quarts  of  rice  or  two  quarts  of  navy  beans.  These 
are  boiled  for  twenty  minutes  and  put  in  fireless 
cooker  the  day  before  they  are  used. 

"  We  give  these  details  in  order  that  they  may 
serve  as  guides  for  others  who  may  wish  to  engage 
in  similar  work. 

"  MANAGEMENT 

"  We  have  a  corps  of  directors,  one  of  whom 
serves  regularly  the  same  day  of  each  week  during 
the  entire  year.  We  have  also  a  volunteer  corps 
of  assistants  so  arranged  that  six  ladies  serve  the 
same  day  each  week  for  one  month,  thus  making 
the  task  not  arduous,  but  one  of  pleasure.  All  ex- 
penses of  the  lunch  room  but  the  salary  of  our  paid 
assistant,  who  does  the  cooking,  have  been  met  by 
the  receipts  of  the  lunch  room.  The  salary  of  our 
cook  is  paid  out  of  the  Philanthropic  Fund  of  the 
Council. 

"All  our  receipts  being  deposited  in  bank,  our 
bills  are  paid  by  check,  either  weekly  or  monthly, 
out  of  this  account. 

"  Since  co-operation  is  the  watchword  of  the  day, 
we  are  now  planning  to  establish  a  Penny  Lunch 
Room  Club.    We  hope  thus  to  meet  all  the  workers 


LUNCHES  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS    173 

of  the  several  school  lunch  rooms  in  Cincinnati, 
and  by  exchange  of  ideas  bring  about  a  perfect 
system  and  closer  affiliation  of  interest." 

MUNICIPAL   SCHOOL  LUNCHES   IN   ST.    LOUIS 

In  October,  191 1,  an  experiment  was  begun  to 
extend  the  luncheon  services  long  provided  in  high 
schools  to  the  elementary  schools  of  St.  Louis.  A 
noon  lunch  is  served  in  five  schools  in  congested  sec- 
tions of  the  city.  The  lunches  are  primarily  in- 
tended to  benefit  poorly  nourished  children,  but  are 
also  designed  to  provide  wholesome  food  at  cost 
to  all  children  who  do  not  eat  lunch  at  home.  The 
patronage  is  entirely  voluntary.  Approximately  900 
children  are  served  daily  in  all  lunch  rooms.  The 
manager  of  one  of  the  high  school  lunch  rooms 
is  also  the  manager  of  the  grade  school  lunches. 

For  about  a  month  the  food  was  prepared  at  the 
Central  High  School  kitchen  and  distributed  in  fire- 
less  cookers  by  rapid  delivery  to  the  schools.  On 
account  of  the  expense  of  carriage,  this  method  was 
abandoned  for  the  plan  of  preparation  in  the  separate 
schools.  Luncheons  are  served  under  the  direction 
of  a  paid  assistant,  but  the  larger  girls  of  the  schools 
can  receive  their  lunches  as  compensation.     The 


174  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

work  of  accounting  and  reporting  is  handled  by  the 
principal  in  each  school.  The  School  Board  pays 
for  equipment  and  the  children's  money  covers  the 
cost  and  service. 

MENUS 

The  following  dishes  are  served,  each  costing 
2j4  cents: 

i.  Soup,  baked  beans  or  stew  with  one  slice  of 
bread. 

2.  One  meat  sandwich. 

3.  One  jelly,  cheese  or  salmon  sandwich. 

4.  One  cup  of  milk  and  two  slices  of  bread. 

5.  One  dessert,  such  as  pudding  or  gingerbread. 

EQUIPMENT 

The  equipment  provided  by  the  Board  comprises 
the  following:  Two-burner  gas  stoves,  folding 
chairs  and  kindergarten  tables,  mugs,  plates,  tea- 
spoons, tubs  for  washing  dishes  and  towels,  milk 
cans,  metal  checks  and  slot  boxes  for  same. 

LUNCHES  IN  CLASSES  FOR  MENTALLY  DEFECTIVE 
CHILDREN 

There  is  one  form  of  school  lunch  that  meets  with 
immediate  approval  and  is  growing  rapidly,  and  that 


LUNCHES  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS     175 

is  the  lunches  served  in  classes  and  schools  for 
mental  defectives. 

In  Philadelphia,  the  School  Board  has  given  per- 
mission to  the  School  Lunch  Committee  to  serve 
lunches  in  all  special  classes.  This  work  has  come 
largely  as  the  results  of  the  demands  of  special  class 
teachers,  who  eagerly  assume  the  additional  re- 
sponsibility which  they  know  will  in  the  end  lighten 
their  burden.  One  special  difficulty  is  to  get  the 
children  to  remember  their  pennies;  it  takes  several 
weeks  to  establish  this  habit  gained  by  normal  chil- 
dren in  a  few  days,  but  this  is  valuable  training. 

Because  the  percentage  of  underfeeding  in  these 
classes  is  far  greater  than  among  normal  children 
— sixty  instead  of  ten — the  need  for  carefully 
planned  meals  is  larger,  but  there  is  no  difference 
in  the  kind  of  food  required.  There  is  a  real  differ- 
ence in  service,  however,  in  that  these  retarded 
children  need  even  more  than  their  brighter  fellows 
the  training  that  comes  from  preparing,  serving  and 
cleaning  up.  Indeed,  for  these  children,  to  whom 
so  many  of  the  normal  channels  of  learning  are 
closed,  the  relatively  simple  movements  associated 
with  such  a  fundamental  interest  as  the  food  in- 
terest afford  an  unrivalled  educational  opportunity. 


176  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

Fortunately,  the  fact  that  the  classes  are  small  makes 
it  possible  to  take  advantage  of  this  opportunity  in 
most  places. 

The  experience  of  Milwaukee,  where  the  lunches 
have  been  organized  for  several  years,  is  typical. 
Here  many  of  the  children  in  the  class  are  under- 
fed and  so  the  menus  are  chosen  with  special  care. 
The  following  things  are  given:  thick  vegetable 
soups,  or  porridges  of  oatmeal  and  cornmeal,  baked 
beans  and  potatoes,  bread  and  butter,  and  plenty  of 
milk,  with  popcorn,  peanuts  and  fruit  for  dessert. 
The  children  are  taught  to  set  the  table,  wash  and 
wipe  the  dishes  and  put  the  kitchen  and  dining- 
room  in  perfect  order  after  the  meal.  Each  child 
has  his  own  particular  piece  of  work  to  do  every 
day.  Considerable  attention  is  given  to  table  man- 
ners and  to  the  general  appearance  of  the  room  and 
table.  The  dishes  are  not  the  heavy  white  ware  so 
often  found  in  institutions,  but  are  delicate  and 
pretty  and  the  children  are  taught  to  value  them  and 
care  for  them.  The  table  is  decorated  with  flowers 
and  plants  and  with  colored  paper  strips. 

The  city  considers  that  this  work  is  so  impor- 
tant that  it  bears  the  entire  expense. 


READY  TO  SERVE  RURAL  SCHOOL  LUNCH.   MINNESOTA 


COOKING  CORPS  IN  MINNESOTA  RURAL  SCHOOL 


LUNCHES  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS    177 

WARM  LUNCHES  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS 

The  lunch  problem  is  an  inevitable  one  in  rural 
schools.  Children  do  not  live  near  enough  to  go 
home  at  noon.  Unlike  city  children  they  do  not 
have  pennies  to  spend,  because  ready  money  is  scarce 
even  in  well-to-do  farmers'  homes  and  even  if  they 
had  there  would  be  no  place  to  spend  them.  The 
solution  of  this  problem  is  largely  left  to  the  chil- 
dren themselves  and  takes  the  shape  of  lunches 
brought  in  baskets  or  pails  and  eaten  cold. 

Two  solutions  are  coming  into  effect  to  ameliorate 
this  condition.  The  first,  which  has  been  tried  spor- 
adically in  various  parts  of  the  country,  is  to  make 
provision  for  children  to  warm  their  home  lunches. 
This  involves  little  other  equipment  than  putting  a 
top  for  cooking  on  the  ordinary  heating  stove.  The 
second  and  better  solution  is  to  have  in  addition  to 
this  provision  one  common  article  of  food  such  as 
a  meat  stew  or  warm  drink  of  milk  and  cocoa.  As 
a  rule  this  latter  provision  is  not  made  on  a  paying 
basis.  The  children  bring  the  materials,  each  one 
according  to  his  ability:  a  piece  of  meat,  carrots, 
turnips,  potatoes,  milk,  etc.     The  older  girls,  with 

12 


178  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

the  help  of  the  teacher,  cook  this  material  in  which 
all  equally  share. 

Plans  similar  to  these  are  being  promoted  by 
the  Agriculture  Division  of  the  University  of  Min- 
nesota. Where  schools  are  more  highly  developed 
the  lunches  take  the  desirable  form  of  an  extension 
of  the  domestic  science  work.  One  plan,  described 
in  Extension  Bulletin  No.  19,  published  in  July, 
191 1,  by  the  University  of  Minnesota,  has  already 
been  adopted  by  many  teachers. 

EQUIPMENT 

The  equipment  needed  for  this  work  is  simple. 
First  the  stove,  which  is  already  there,  a  six  or 
eight  quart  granite  kettle,  a  long  wooden  or  granite 
spoon  for  stirring  and  a  granite  ladle  for  serving, 
and  dish  pan  and  mop  for  washing  up.  Paper  nap- 
kins should  be  provided.  The  children  themselves 
can  bring  the  cups  and  spoons  from  home  and  can 
make  the  dish  cloths.  They  can  also  make  fireless 
cookers,  which  are  especially  valuable  for  cooking 
cereals,  boxes  for  keeping  salt,  pepper,  flour  and 
other  staples,  and  cupboards  in  which  to  store 
them. 


WARM  LUNCH   EQUIPMENT    OF   ONE-ROOM   RURAL  SCHOOL,   MINNESOTA.      NOTE 
FIRELESS  COOKER 


LUNCHES  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS     179 

TEACHING  FOOD  VALUES 

The  scheme  forwarded  in  Minnesota  includes  the 
teaching  of  food  values,  and  with  each  recipe  dis- 
tributed there  is  a  statement  of  the  special  value  and 
limitation  of  the  main  article  used.  This  statement 
is  non-technical,  and  forms  a  plan  for  the  teacher's 
lesson,  including  a  list  of  questions  covering  the 
main  points. 

ECONOMY  OF  TIME 

If  work  of  this  sort  is  to  become  a  practical  daily 
routine,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  encroach  on  the 
lesson  hours.  In  one  Maine  school  this  was  man- 
aged by  detailing  a  force  of  four  children  each  week, 
to  be  held  responsible  for  having  everything  pre- 
pared before  ten  minutes  to  nine,  putting  the  food 
on  at  the  proper  hour,  serving  and  washing  dishes 
and  clearing  up.  None  of  the  distinctly  preparatory 
work  such  as  peeling  vegetables  or  cleaning  rice 
was  done  in  school  hours. 

PLACE  OF  SERVING 

In  the  ordinary  rural  school  the  classroom  is  un- 
happily the  only  place  where  the  meals  may  be 


180  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

served.  In  warm  weather  the  meals  can  be  taken 
outdoors,  and  in  any  case  the  room  should  be  thor- 
oughly aired.  In  consolidated  schools,  which  are 
more  and  more  taking  the  place  of  the  old  district 
buildings,  attic  space  that  would  otherwise  go  to 
waste  may  be  used  nicely,  though  the  ideal  is  to 
have  space  for  kitchen  and  dining-room  set  aside  in 
the  building  plans. 

SUMMARY 

A  summary  of  the  advantages  of  these  lunches  in 
rural  schools  includes  the  obvious  one  of  warm 
food,  doing  of  the  work  with  the  responsibility  of 
getting  ready  a  strictly  limited  amount  of  material 
by  a  definite  time,  to  meeting  the  practical  test  of 
daily  eating,  learning  the  food  values  and  finally, 
the  civilizing  effect  of  leisureful  eating  together. 

PRESENT  EXTENT  OF  SCHOOL   FEEDING  IN 
AMERICA 

Work  in  the  other  American  cities  which  has  been 
begun  in  most  cases  by  women's  clubs  with  the 
co-operation  of  teachers  and  medical  inspectors  is 
not  essentially  different  from  that  already  described. 


LUNCHES  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS     181 

Within  the  past  few  years,  lunches  have  been  intro- 
duced in  the  following  cities : 

Colorado  : 
Denver. 

District  of  Columbia: 
Washington. 

Illinois : 

Chicago. 

Indiana : 

Indianapolis. 

Massachusetts  : 
Amherst. 
Boston. 
Greenfield. 
Westford. 

Minnesota : 
St.  Paul. 
(Also  in  rural  districts.) 

Missouri : 
St.  Louis. 

New   York: 

Albany  (in  a  vocational  school). 

Buffalo. 

Mill  Valley. 

New  York  City. 

Rochester. 

Ohio: 

Cincinnati. 
Cleveland. 

Louisiana : 

New  Orleans. 


182  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

Pennsylvania : 
Erie. 

Logansville    (consolidated    schools). 
Manayunk. 
McKeesport. 
Philadelphia. 
Pittsburgh. 
Wayne. 

Tennessee : 

Memphis  (in  a  night  school). 

Texas  : 

Houston. 

Wisconsin : 
Eau  Gaire. 
Milwaukee. 
Muskegon. 

This  work  has  received  much  attention  by  the 
press  throughout  the  country,  and  has  been  widely 
discussed  at  congresses  of  workers  for  child  wel- 
fare, home  economics,  educational  and  medical 
progress.  Among  places  where  the  introduction  of 
school  lunches  is  being  seriously  considered,  in  many 
cases  by  school  boards,  are  the  following:  Balti- 
more, Md. ;  Huntington,  Cambridge,  Springfield  and 
Methuen,  Mass.;  Concord,  Newport,  Columbus, 
Salt  Lake  City,  Los  Angeles,  and  Kansas  City. 

STATE  LEGISLATION 

While  no  State  has  as  yet  enacted  legislation  pro- 
viding for  the  maintenance  of  school  lunches,  it  is 


LUNCHES  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS    183 

significant  that  in  Massachusetts  the  Education 
Committee  of  the  lower  house  reported  favorably  a 
bill  introduced  early  in  19 12,  authorizing  cities  and 
towns  to  provide  meals  for  school  children.  The 
terms  of  this  bill  (No.  729)  are  as  follows: 

Section  i.  The  city  council  of  a  city  and  the  selectmen 
of  a  town  may  provide  meals  free  or  at  such  price,  not  ex- 
ceeding the  cost,  as  they  may  fix,  for  children  attending  its 
public  schools,  and  cities  and  towns  may  appropriate  money 
for  this  purpose. 

Section  2.  This  act  shall  be  submitted  to  the  voters  of 
any  city  or  town  at  the  municipal  election  in  any  year: 
provided,  that  a  petition  to  that  effect,  signed  by  not  less  than 
five  per  cent,  of  the  voters,  is  filed  with  the  city  clerk  or 
town  clerk,  as  the  case  may  be,  not  less  than  one  month 
before  the  said  election,  and  if  accepted  by  a  majority  of 
the  voters  voting  thereon  it  shall  take  effect  in  such  city  or 
town.    Otherwise  this  act  shall  not  take  effect. 

To  prophesy  is  always  dangerous,  and  doubly  so 
in  the  realm  of  social  movements.  But  should  one 
judge  the  future  of  school  feeding  by  comparing 
its  history  with  the  records  of  medical  inspection, 
dental  inspection  and  playgrounds,  one  might  well 
hazard  the  prophecy  that  within  two  years  school 
lunches  will  be  established  parts  of  the  elementary 
school  systems  of  at  least  one  hundred  American 
cities. 


VIII 
Provision  of  Meals  in  Open  Air  Schools 

There  are  three  prime  requisites  for  the  success- 
ful conduct  of  an  open  air  school.  These  are  fresh 
air,  warm  clothing,  and  an  abundance  of  whole- 
some food.  Open  air  schools  are  designed  to  pro- 
vide for  the  education  of  physically  debilitated  chil- 
dren. Their  purpose  is  to  make  it  possible  for  such 
children  to  continue  their  education  and  at  the  same 
time  regain  their  lost  health  and  vitality. 

Those  who  have  the  most  extended  experience 
with  these  new  schools  agree  that  proper  feeding 
is  at  least  as  important  a  factor  in  the  marvellous 
results  obtained  as  is  abundant  fresh  air. 

GERMANY 

In  Germany,  where  the  open  air  school  originated, 
the  best  practice  sanctions  such  frequent  feeding 
that  it  may  almost  be  termed  "  forced  feeding." 
In  the  original  school  at  Charlottenburg,  the  daily 
routine  is  as  follows: 

Children  arrive  at  about  a  quarter  of  eight  and 
receive  a  bowl  of  soup  and  a  slice  of  bread  and 
184 


MEALS  IN  OPEN  AIR  SCHOOLS      185 

butter.  Classes  commence  at  eight  and  there  is  an 
interval  of  five  minutes  after  every  half  hour's  in- 
struction. At  ten  o'clock  the  children  receive  one 
or  two  glasses  of  milk  and  another  slice  of  bread 
and  butter.  Dinner  is  served  at  half-past  twelve 
and  consists  of  about  three  ounces  of  meat  with 
vegetables  and  soup.  After  dinner  the  children 
rest  or  sleep  for  two  hours.  At  four  o'clock  milk, 
rye  bread  and  jam  are  given.  The  last  meal  con- 
sists of  soup  and  bread  and  butter  and  is  given  at  a 
quarter  to  seven,  after  which  the  children  return 
home. 

In  the  Gladbach  school  the  children  are  given 
breakfast,  lunch  and  supper  and  half  a  pint  of 
milk.  Lunch  consists  of  soup,  meat  and  two 
vegetables.  Food  is  supplied  from  a  neighboring 
sanitarium  which  makes  it  cheaper  than  it  would 
otherwise  be.  The  same  plan  is  followed  in  the 
school  at  Elberfeld  where  the  food  is  supplied  from 
a  neighboring  convalescent  home. 

ENGLAND 

When  the  first  English  school  was  opened  at 
Bostall  Wood  near  London,  it  was  decided  that  the 
children  should  be  supplied  with  three  good  meals 


186  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

a  day.  The  food  was  prepared  at  a  cookery  centre 
about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  Wood.  The 
children  received  breakfast  at  9  a.m.,  immediately 
after  arriving;  dinner  at  12.30;  biscuits  and  fruit 
at  3.30  and  tea  at  5.30.    The  dietary  was  as  follows : 

Breakfast  on  arrival:  , 

Oatmeal  porridge    (medium  Scotch  meal). 
Syrup. 
Milk,  one-half  pint. 

Dinner  at  12.30  p.m.: 

Meat  (4  ozs.) ;   fish  occasionally. 
Potatoes  (6  ozs.). 
Green  vegetables  in  quantity. 
Pudding  (6  ozs.)  in  rotation: 

Suet  pudding  and  treacle. 

Milk  pudding. 

Stewed  fruit,  or  fruit  in  batter,  or  boiled  rice. 

3.30  p.m.: 

Fruit  or  biscuit. 

Tea,  445  to  545  pm.: 

Weak  tea   (mostly  milk). 

Bread  and  butter. 

Jam  or  syrup  twice  a  week. 

Cake,  or  currant  bread  and  butter,  twice  a  week. 

The  good  conduct  of  the  children  at  meal  times 
was  particularly  noticeable.    Before  the  close  of  the 


MEALS  IN  OPEN  AIR  SCHOOLS      187 

term  they  acquired  a  taste  for  good  food  and  such 
diet  as  oatmeal  porridge  and  green  vegetables, 
which  they  were  not  accustomed  to  and  refused  to 
eat  during  the  opening  days  of  the  experiment. 

At  the  Thackley  School  at  Bradford  only  three 
meals  a  day  were  provided.  The  physician  in 
charge  did  not  approve  of  the  German  practice  of 
supplying  food  more  frequently.  For  breakfast  at 
nine  o'clock  the  children  had  porridge,  syrup,  half 
a  pint  of  milk,  brown  or  white  bread  and  butter. 
The  first  morning  many  of  the  children  refused  to 
eat  the  porridge  or  would  take  only  a  mouthful  or 
two.  In  a  few  mornings,  however,  it  was  enjoyed 
by  practically  all  of  them.  Dinner  came  at  12.30 
and  was  cooked  on  the  premises.  The  menu  varied 
from  day  to  day,  the  first  and  second  courses  being 
chosen  from  among  the  following : 

First  Course. — Scotch  barley  broth;  tomato  soup;  meat 
and  potato  hash;  Shepherd's  pie,  gravy  and  green  peas  (or 
carrots  and  turnips)  ;  Yorkshire  pudding,  with  gravy  and 
green  peas;  stewed  beef  with  onions,  carrots  and  turnips; 
stewed  fish,  parsley  sauce,  mashed  potatoes  and  green  peas. 

Second  Course. — Sultana  or  jam  roly  poly  pudding;  fruit 
tart;  baked  currant  pudding  and  sweet  sauce;  baked  jam 
roll ;  boiled  fruit  pudding  (plum  or  apple)  ;  milk  pudding 
in  variety  with  stewed  fruit;  boiled  rice  and  sultanas;  corn- 
flour blancmange. 


188  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

Tea  at  5  p.m.  consisted  of  milk  (y2  pint) ;  bread  (brown 
or  white);    butter  or  jam;    wholemeal  cake  occasionally. 

The  dietary  now  followed  at  the  Sheffield  School 
is  typical  of  present  English  practice.  Breakfasts 
consist  of  porridge  and  milk,  with  treacle  or  sugar. 
The  dinner  consists  of  two  dishes  daily,  the  follow- 
ing routine  being  observed: 

Monday:     I.  Lentil    soup    and   bread.     2.  Rice   and    stewed 
fruit. 

Tuesday:    1.  Cold  rolled  boiled  beef,  cabbage  and  potatoes. 
2.  Boiled  suet  puddings  with  currants. 

Wednesday:    1.  Mutton  broth  and  bread.    2.  Mutton  (boiled 
in  soup),  potatoes,  carrots,  and  turnips. 

Thursday:    1.  Irish  stew  and  carrots.    2.  Suet  dumplings. 

Friday:   1.  Boiled  fish,  parsley  sauce,  potatoes.    2.  Boiled  jam 
puddings. 

Tea  consists  of  milk,  bread  and  jam  or  margar- 
ine, with  scones,  parkin,  or  plain  cake  once  a  week. 

UNITED  STATES 

In  the  American  schools  the  meals  have  less  of 
the  character  of  forced  feeding  than  that  in  vogue 
in  Germany  and  England.  The  following  are  the 
menus  for  two  days  in  the  first  Boston  school  and 


MEALS  IN  OPEN  AIR  SCHOOLS      189 

may  be  regarded  as  typical  of  American  practice 
with  children  who  are  distinctly  tuberculous. 

Breakfast : 

Cocoa,   Graham  gems,  butter,  stewed  prunes. 
Cocoa,  bread  and  butter,  sliced  bananas. 

Luncheon : 

Creamed  codfish,  mashed  potato,  bread,  milk,  dates  and 

nuts. 
Stew  of  rice  and  mutton,  bread  and  butter,  milk,  dessert 
and  figs. 
Supper : 

Milk,  crackers,  and  cream  cheese. 

In  addition  to  the  meals  supplied  by  the  school 
the  children  had  breakfast  before  leaving  home  in 
the  morning  consisting  of  bread  and  milk  or  cereal 
and  milk,  with  sometimes  an  egg.  Moreover  they 
received  a  light  meal  on  their  return  home  at  night. 
The  children  were  allowed  full  helpings,  especially 
of  milk  and  cocoa,  so  that  the  fuel  value  of  the  meals 
actually  consumed  frequently  amounted  to  over 
2,500  Calories,  with  ample  tissue-building  stuff.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  these  children  were  tuber- 
culous, which  means  that  their  bodies  required  an 
amount  of  energy  and  cell  stuff  to  replace  the  waste 
of  disease  quite  out  of  proportion  to  the  usual  de- 
,mands  of  normal  growth  and  activity. 


190  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

In  the  pioneer  American  school  at  Providence, 
Rhode  Island,  no  attempt  at  full  feeding  is  made. 
The  children  arrive  at  9  in  the  morning  and  the 
session  closes  at  2.30  in  the  afternoon.  At  about 
10.30  in  the  forenoon  they  have  a  recess  during 
which  they  are  given  hot  soup.  At  noon  they  take 
seats  about  tables  in  the  schoolroom  and  eat  the 
lunch  that  they  have  brought  with  them  from  home, 
which  is  supplemented  by  hot  food  prepared  at  the 
school.  This  hot  dish  generally  consists  of  a  pud- 
ding such  as  tapioca  or  rice  served  with  cream,  or 
hot  chocolate  or  cocoa  made  with  milk.  A  sample 
menu  for  one  week  is  as  follows : 

Monday. — 10.30:  beef  soup  with  rice.  12.00:  pudding 
made  of  cream  of  wheat  with  3  quarts  of  milk  and  6  eggs, 
served  with  cream;    chocolate,  all  milk. 

Tuesday. — 10.30:  beef  soup  with  macaroni.  12.00:  pud- 
ding, made  of  tapioca,  2  quarts  of  milk,  6  eggs,  whipped 
cream;    chocolate,  all  milk. 

Wednesday. — 10.30:  tomato  bisque  soup.  12.00:  rice 
pudding  made  with  3  quarts  of  milk,  6  eggs,  served  with 
cream;    chocolate,  all  milk. 

Thursday. — 10.30:  beef  soup  with  vegetables.  12.00: 
baked  farina  pudding  made  with  3  quarts  of  milk,  6  eggs, 
and  cream;   chocolate,  all  milk. 

Friday. — 10.30:  pea  soup.  12.00:  prune  pudding  made  of 
3  quarts  of  milk,  6  eggs  and  served  with  cream;  cocoa,  all 
milk. 


OPEN-AIR    SCHOOL,    SYRACUSE,    N.     Y.       DAINTY     TABLEWARE    IS   POSSIBLE 
WITH   SMALL   NUMBERS 


MEALS  IN  OPEN  AIR  SCHOOLS       191 

In  Syracuse,  New  York,  a  class  was  opened  in 
September,  191 1,  for  nervous,  run-down  and 
anaemic  children.  The  teacher,  acting  with  the  co- 
operation and  advice  of  the  medical  inspector,  plans 
the  one  substantial  meal  that  is  served  daily  and 
keeps  accurate  records  of  the  exact  quantities  used 
and  of  their  food  value.  A  cook,  employed  two 
hours  a  day,  cooks  the  meal,  and  the  children  them- 
selves do  the  serving,  setting  the  table  and  clearing 
up  afterward.  A  group  of  children  for  this  work 
is  chosen  weekly,  and  they  like  to  do  it  so  well  that 
boys  and  girls  alike  bargain  ahead  for  a  place  on 
the  corps. 

Each  day  one  warm  dish  with  bread  and  butter, 
and  cocoa  or  milk  to  drink  are  served,  and  occa- 
sionally fruit  or  cookies  in  addition.  The  warm 
dish  is  chosen  from  among  the  following,  which 
have  proved  most  popular  after  several  months' 
trial : 

Corned  beef  hash,  baked  beans,  lamb  stew  made 
with  potatoes,  carrots  and  onions,  tomato  soup 
with  vermicelli,  hamburger  steak  with  potatoes, 
scrambled  eggs,  macaroni  with  tomato  sauce,  vege- 
table soup,  boiled  rice,  shredded  wheat  or  cream 
of  wheat  served  with  milk  and  sugar. 

The  amount  of  food  used  during  one  school  month 


193  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

of  twenty  days  for  an  average  of  twenty-five  pupils, 
is  shown  in  the  accompanying  table.  In  this  are  also 
given  the  cost  and  the  food  value  of  each  article. 

Table  ii.  Food  Used  in  One  School  Month — Syracuse 
Open  Air  School — Showing  Money-Cost  and  Food 
Value.    Twenty  Meals,  Twenty-five  Children 

Protein 
Articles  Amount  Cost  (lb*-)      Calories 

1.  Bananas    50  $  .60           6,350 

2.  Beans    6  lbs.  .48  .40  5,940 

3.  Bread  and  rolls    71  lbs.  7.10  6.50  86,975 

4.  Butter    16  lbs.  5.60  .16  57,680 

5.  Cocoa    3  lbs.  .75  .65  6,060 

6.  Crackers    5  lbs.  .40  .50  9,625 

7.  Cookies  (molasses)   .  3  lbs.  .45  .19  7,530 

8.  Cream  of  wheat  ....  5-5 lbs.  .44  .70  9,267 
9-  Eggs    64  1.30  .65  3,955 

10.  Zweiback    5    lbs.  .50  .50  9,850 

11.  Macaroni    7.5  lbs.  .60  1.00  12,187 

12.  Meat  and  fish   23    lbs.  5.00  3.46  21,270 

13.  Milk    124    qts.  8.88  8.20  80,600 

14.  Oranges   6    lbs.  .60  ....  1,440 

15.  Potatoes    47    lbs.  1.35  .80  23,420 

16.  Rice    4-5  lbs.  .27  .40  2,295 

17.  Shredded  wheat   16    lbs.  1.60  1.60  27,200 

18.  Spinach    6    lbs.  .60  .70  1,560 

19.  Sugar    14.5  lbs.  1.16           29,970 

20.  Vegetable  soup   5    lbs.  .25  .04  1,300 

Grand  total $37-93  26.26    403,544 

Total   average   per   child.  1.52         1.05      16,142 

Food   value  and   cost  of 

average  meal  per  child.  .076  24  grams.    807 


MEALS  IN  OPEN  AIR  SCHOOLS       193 

COST 

The  cost  of  supplying  the  school  meals  varies 
from  about  12  cents  per  capita  per  day  to  about  25 
cents.  In  Germany  and  England  the  expense  is 
distinctly  less  than  the  same  meals  would  cost  in 
this  country.  The  five  meals  per  day  supplied  to 
the  children  at  Charlottenburg  cost  only  12  cents 
per  child  per  day.  At  Elberfeld  5  daily  meals  which 
include  one  quart  of  milk  per  child  are  supplied 
for  16  cents  per  day.  The  same  sum  supplied  4 
meals  per  day  in  the  first  English  school  at  Bostall 
Wood. 

In  New  York  City,  where  eight  public  open  air 
food  was  about  20  cents  per  child  per  day  and  the 
cost  of  preparing  and  serving  it  increased  the  ex- 
pense to  about  25  cents. 

In  New  York  City,  where  eight  public  open  air 
schools  are  in  operation,  the  committee  in  charge 
estimates  that  where  the  full  lunch  including  milk 
both  morning  and  afternoon  is  provided,  the  cost  is 
17  cents  per  child  per  day.  The  midday  lunch  alone 
costs  about  10  cents  per  day  per  child  and  milk 
alone  twice  a  day  without  any  midday  lunch  costs 
about  5  cents  per  child  per  day. 

In  Syracuse  the  total  cost  of  food,  service  and 
13 


194  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

gas  for  one  school  month,  or  twenty  days,  for 
twenty-five  pupils  was  fifty-two  dollars  and  ninety- 
three  cents.  This  amount  was  distributed  as  follows : 

Raw    food    for    twenty   days $37-93 

Service   (two  hours  daily) ,  12.00 

Gas    3.00 

Cost  per  pupil  per  month 2.12 

Cost  per  pupil  per  day 11 

Cost  per  day  per  pupil  of  food  alone 076 

ADMINISTRATION 

In  nearly  all  cases  American  open  air  schools 

are  administered  by  a  partnership  of  responsibility. 

In  a  majority  of  the  cities  the  cost  for  teachers' 

salaries,  equipment  and  so  forth  is  met  by  the  Board 

of  Education,  while  the  expense  for  food  as  well 

as  for  clothing  is  defrayed  by  hospitals,  charitable 

organizations  and  systems  for  the  prevention  and 

cure  of  tuberculosis.    At  the  close  of  the  school  year 

191 1,  data  as  to  the  administration  of  schools  in 

47  American  cities  were  as  follows : 

Board  of  Education  and  tuberculosis  association   20 

Board  of  Education  and  private  association    11 

Board  of  Education    only    7 

Board  of  Education   and   other   city   departments 6 

Tuberculosis  association  only  2 

Board  of  Education  and  private  fund 1 


MEALS  IN  OPEN  AIR  SCHOOLS      195 

As  a  general  summary  of  feeding  in  open  air 
schools,  it  may  be  said  that  the  meals  are  an  essential 
feature  of  the  treatment,  that  plentiful,  wholesome 
food  may  be  provided  at  relatively  light  cost  and 
that  in  the  majority  of  American  cities  the  special 
cost  of  the  food  is  shared  by  bodies  outside  the 
school  boards. 


IX 

Investigations  of  Underfeeding  Among 
American  School  Children 


THE   NUMBER   OF    UNDERFED    CHILDREN 

General  public  interest  in  school  feeding  began 
with  the  publication,  in  1904,  of  Robert  Hunter's 
book,  "  Poverty."  In  trying  to  give  some  estimate 
of  the  amount  of  suffering  that  must  exist  as  a 
result  of  poverty  Mr.  Hunter  made  the  statement 
that  there  must  be  "  very  likely  sixty  or  seventy 
thousand  children  in  New  York  City  alone  who 
often  arrive  at  school  hungry  and  unfitted  to  do 
well  the  work  assigned  to  them."  *  This  statement 
has  received  more  publicity  than  any  other  one 
sentence  in  the  whole  book  and  it  was  all  too  often 
translated  by  the  newspapers  into  "  70,000  starving 
children  in  New  York  City  come  breakfastless  to 
school."  As  a  result  many  so-called  investigations 
were  made  and  most  conflicting  reports  published 
which  alternately  refuted,  corroborated  and  outdid 
Hunter's  original  statement. 

1  Hunter,  Robert,  Poverty,  The  Macmillan  Co.,  p.  216. 
196 


UNDERFEEDING  197 

Shortly  after  the  publication  of  this  book,  John 
Spargo  undertook  to  find  out  by  personal  investiga- 
tion the  real  facts  about  underfed  children  in  New- 
York  City.2  He  first  confined  his  attention  to  the 
subject  of  the  usual  breakfasts  eaten  by  school  chil- 
dren. He  was  able  with  the  cordial  co-operation  of 
principals  and  teachers  to  gather  fairly  reliable  in- 
formation in  regard  to  the  breakfasts  of  12,800 
children,  in  sixteen  different  schools. 

The  method  used  was  as  follows:  Each  child 
was  questioned  privately  by  the  class  teacher  as  to 
what  he  had  for  breakfast  that  day.  If  he  reported 
no  breakfast,  the  fact  was  noted,  and  also  if  he 
reported  an  inadequate  breakfast.  For  this  inves- 
tigation, an  inadequate  breakfast  was  defined  as 
one  not  containing  any  of  the  following  articles: 
Milk,  eggs,  meat,  fish,  cereal,  butter,  jam  or  fruit; 
it  further  meant  one  consisting  of  coffee  or  tea, 
either  alone  or  with  bread  or  cake  or  crackers. 
Each  teacher  reported  to  the  principal  the  number 
of  children  with  no  breakfast,  and  those  with  in- 
adequate breakfasts,  omitting  so  far  as  possible  chil- 
dren of  fairly  good  circumstances  whose  lack  of 
breakfast  was  accidental  or  unusual. 

'Spargo,  John:  The  Bitter  Cry  of  the  Children,  New 
York,   1906,   Macmillan   Company,  pp.   61-124. 


198  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

The  inquiry  revealed  the  following  facts:  Of 
12,800  children,  987  or  nearly  8  per  cent,  had  no 
breakfast;  1,963  others,  or  over  15  per  cent,  had 
inadequate  breakfasts.  This  made  a  total  of  23  per 
cent,  of  all  the  children  in  those  schools  who  were 
badly  fed,  so  far  as  this  might  be  indicated  by  break- 
fasts alone. 

Mr.  Spargo  then  tried  to  find  out  what  sort  of 
lunches  the  children  had.  He  was  assured  by 
teachers  and  principals  and  by  his  own  observation 
that  many  children  did  not  go  home  at  noon,  but 
remained  playing  about  the  school  yard,  with  no 
lunch  at  all.  No  exact  figures  were  gathered  on 
this  point.  From  questioning,  by  the  teachers,  it 
was  found  that  anywhere  from  10  to  20  per  cent, 
of  the  children  were  given  pennies  to  buy  their  own 
lunches.  He  watched  what  they  bought  and  re- 
ports this  special  illustration  as  a  fair  example  of 
their  choice  in  winter.  Fourteen  children,  eight 
boys  and  six  girls,  in  one  delicatessen  store,  bought, 
seven  of  them  pickles  and  bread,  four  of  them 
pickles  alone,  two  of  them  bologna  and  rye  bread, 
and  one  pickled  fish  and  bread.  On  a  summer  day 
he  saw  a  group  of  nineteen  buy,  six  of  thetn  pickles, 
two  of  them  pickles  and  bread,  six  ice  cream,  two 


UNDERFEEDING  199 

bananas,  and  three  candy.  Mr.  Spargo  found  that 
another  way  the  lunch  pennies  go  is  in  gambling, 
especially  among  boys. 

This  investigation  was  followed  by  many  others, 
both  in  New  York,  and  in  other  cities,  which  may 
be  grouped  in  two  classes;  the  first  being  confined, 
as  was  Mr.  Spargo's,  to  a  study  of  the  kind  of 
breakfasts  and  lunches  eaten  by  the  children;  and 
the  second  a  survey  of  the  children's  nutrition,  made 
by  physicians. 

I.  Following  is  an  account  of  various  inquiries 
into  the  subject  of  the  breakfast  of  school  children : 

In  1906  Dr.  Lechstecker,  acting  for  the  New 
York  State  Board  of  Charities,  examined  10,707 
children  in  the  12  Industrial  Schools  of  the  Chil- 
dren's Aid  Society.  He  found  that  of  these,  439 
had  had  no  breakfast  on  the  day  of  inquiry  and  998 
others  had  had  breakfasts  of  coffee  alone  or  with 
bread.  These  children,  who  formed  13  per  cent,  of 
all  examined,  showed  marked  anaemia.  Dr.  Lech- 
stecker declared  that  he  found  that  only  18  per  cent, 
of  all  children  had  started  the  day  with  what  he 
considered  suitable  and  adequate  meals. 

In  a  similar  examination  made  in  1905  in  Chicago 
of  5,150  children  in  5  schools,  1,586,  or  31  per  cent., 


200  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

reported  an  entirely  inadequate  breakfast  or  none  at 
all.  In  Buffalo,  of  7,500  children  in  8  schools, 
5,105  reported  a  breakfast  of  tea  or  coffee  and 
bread.  The  principals  in  these  schools  asserted  that 
there  were  1,150,  or  15  per  cent,  of  all  examined, 
who  were  obviously  handicapped  by  poor  nutrition. 
In  Philadelphia  4,589  children  were  examined  and 
189  reported  no  breakfast,  and  2,504,  tea  or  coffee 
and  bread,  making  a  total  of  59  per  cent,  coming 
to  school  inadequately  fed.3 

2.  Beginning  with  the  year  1906,  Medical  In- 
spectors in  New  York  Public  Elementary  Schools 
have  recorded  cases  of  malnutrition.  During  these 
five  years  from  1906-19 10  inclusive,  in  a  total 
number  of  860,728  examinations  the  average  per- 
centage of  cases  found  was  five.  This  means  that 
in  the  proportion  of  one  in  twenty  cases  examined 
the  condition  of  malnutrition  was  so  marked  that 
it  was  entered  on  the  official  records  as  one  of  the 
physical  defects  of  the  child.4 

The  condition  revealed  by  these   investigations 

•The  Hunger  Problem  in  the  Public  Schools — What  the 
Canvass  of  Six  Big  Cities  Reveals,  Special  Correspondence 
in  the  Philadelphia  North  American,  May  31,  1905. 

•Reports  of  the  New  York  Superintendent  of  Schools, 
years  1906  through  1910. 


THE    WAITING   LINE,    BUFFALO,    N. 


A    HAPPY    BOY 


A    BIG   MEAL 


INDIANAPOLIS 


UNDERFEEDING  201 

have  been  repeatedly  mentioned  by  Dr.  Maxwell, 
who  has  year  by  year  recommended  earnestly  the 
establishment  of  school  lunches.  His  latest  recom- 
mendation reads: 

Provision  should  be  made  in  all  schools  for  supplying 
food  at  cost  prices  for  the  pupils  in  the  middle  of  the  day. 

In  1907  the  New  York  Committee  on  the 
Physical  Welfare  of  School  Children  found  on  ex- 
amination of  1400  typical  New  York  school  chil- 
dren that  145  or  10  per  cent,  showed  marked  symp- 
toms of  malnutrition,  and  visits  to  the  homes  showed 
that  the  daily  food  of  many  others  was  unsatis- 
factory. A  few  months  after  the  first  examination 
990  of  these  children  were  re-examined  more  care- 
fully and  of  these  128  or  13  per  cent,  were  declared 
to  be  suffering  from  malnutrition.5 

In  1909  Dr.  E.  Mather  Sill,  at  his  clinic  on  the 
lower  east  side  of  the  city,  made  a  very  careful 
medical  examination  of  1000  children  whose  ages 
ranged  from  six  to  twelve  years  and  found  400 
children  who  were  badly  undernourished.6 

8  The  Physical  Welfare  of  School  Children,  Quarterly 
Publication  of  American  Statistical  Association,  Boston,  1907. 

•Sill,  E.  Mather,  M.D. :  A  Study  of  Malnutrition  in  the 
School  Child,  Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Association, 
vol.  Hi,  No.  25,  p.  1981. 


202  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

Finally  in  the  early  part  of  19 10,  the  School 
Lunch  Committee  made  a  special  examination  of 
2, 1 50  children  in  the  lower  grades  of  two  New  York 
schools,  and  found  283  of  these  or  13  per  cent, 
were  marked  cases  of  malnutrition.  These  children 
weighed  on  the  average  nine  pounds  less  than  the 
normal  for  their  ages. 

In  Chicago,  in  1908,  of  10,090  children  in  12 
schools,  825  children  were  found  by  medical  in- 
spectors to  be  suffering  seriously  from  malnutrition, 
due  to  deficient  food.  In  addition,  353  others  were 
found  who  were  undernourished,  but  for  whose 
conditions  other  causes  than  inadequate  food 
might  be  responsible.  This  means  that  a  total  of 
1,178  or  12  per  cent,  of  those  examined  were  badly 
nourished. 

One  striking  fact  shown  by  the  Chicago  investiga- 
tion was  that  the  number  of  acutely  undernourished 
children  decreased  in  the  higher  grades.  An 
analysis  of  the  distribution  of  the  1,178  children 
in  the  different  grades  follows : 7 

'Reports  on  Underfed  Children,  Reprinted  from  Minutes 
of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  City  of  Chicago,  Oct.  21, 
1908. 


UNDERFEEDING  203 

Table  12.    Investigation  of  Underfeeding  in  Chicago. 

Number 
Grade  underfed  Per  cent. 

Kindergarten    70  15.5 

First  grade  502  14 

Second   grade    235  1 1 

Third  grade   195  10 

Fourth  grade  91  9 

Fifth  and  above 85  6 

Total    1,178  12 

In  Philadelphia,  a  special  investigation  of  500 
children  in  one  school,  in  a  poor  district,  including 
a  medical  examination  and  a  visit  to  the  home  of 
each  child,  revealed  serious  underfeeding  in  119 
cases,  forming  24  per  cent,  of  the  whole. 

In*  Boston,  the  routine  medical  inspection  of  all 
children  in  1909  revealed  between  5,000  and  6,000 
cases  of  underfeeding  and  anaemia  among  a  total 
of  80,000  children. 

In  St.  Paul,  in  1910,  Dr.  Meyerding,  the  head 
of  the  Medical  Inspection,  made  a  special  examina- 
tion of  3,200  children  in  schools  frankly  chosen 
from  the  poorer  district.  He  found  that  644  or 
20  per  cent,  of  the  whole  showed  marked  under- 
feeding. 


204  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

As  a  general  conclusion  from  these  investigations 
it  seems  fair  to  place  the  probable  number  of 
seriously  underfed  school  children  in  New  York  and 
other  American  cities  at  10  per  cent,  of  the  school 
population.  This  number  doubtless  includes  many 
who  might  be  able  to  pay  for  an  adequate  lunch  at 
noon,  if  the  opportunity  were  provided. 

POVERTY,  IGNORANCE  AND  MALNUTRITION 

No  one  doubts  that  there  is  a  close  relation  be- 
tween poverty  and  underfeeding — the  terms  are 
practically  synonymous.  Many  persons,  however, 
insist  that  the  immediate  cause  of  most  of  the  under- 
feeding among  the  school  children  in  American 
cities  is  not  poverty  but  ignorance — that  if  the 
majority  of  incomes,  slender  as  these  are,  were  ex- 
pended wisely,  the  children  might  be  properly  fed. 

Light  on  the  general  problem  of  the  relation  of 
income  to  nutrition  was  thrown  by  Dr.  Chapin's 
study  of  the  Standard  of  Living  Among  Working- 
men's  Families  in  New  York  City.8  His  investiga- 
tion involved  keeping  a  detailed  account  during  one 
week  of  the  actual  expenditures  for  and  consump- 

•Chapin,  Robert  Coit:  The  Standard  of  Living  Among 
Workingmen'.s  Families  in  New  York  City,  New  York,  1907, 
pp.   123-161. 


UNDERFEEDING  205 

tion  of  food  in  ioo  typical  families  of  a  dozen 
nationalities.  So  far  as  possible  "  normal  "  families 
consisting  of  a  father,  mother  and  three  children 
were  chosen.  The  material  gathered  in  this  in- 
vestigation was  submitted  to  dietetic  experts,  who 
estimated  the  actual  food  value  consumed  each  day 
per  family,  and  by  each  member  of  the  family. 
These  results  were  compared  with  the  American 
standard  ration  of  persons  of  different  ages  as  com- 
puted by  Atwater.  In  this  computation  the  unit 
taken  is  the  daily  food  need  of  the  father  of  the 
family,  a  man  at  moderately  active  muscular  work. 
The  needs  of  the  women  and  children  are  then  cal- 
culated in  progressive  fractions  of  this  unit,  varying 
from  three-tenths  for  the  child  under  two  to  eight 
and  nine-tenths  for  the  women  and  adolescents  in 
the  family.9 

When  the  expenditure  for  food  was  compared 
with  the  actual  amount  of  food  purchased,  it  was 
discovered  that,  in  general,  the  families  that  spent 
on  food  less  than  22  cents  per  man  per  day  were 
underfed,  that  is  were  unable  to  buy  enough  to 
support  life  on  a  plane  of  physical  efficiency. 

"United  States  Department  S.  Agricultural  Farmers'  Bul- 
letin No.  142,  p.  33.    See  also  p.  240,  this  text. 


206  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

The  yearly  expenditure  for  food  in  each  of  the 
391  families  was  then  determined,  and  it  was  found 
that  applying  the  minimum  standard  of  22  cents 
per  man  per  day,  the  families  might  be  grouped  as 
follows,  according  to  the  income  and  the  percentage 
of  necessary  underfeeding,  as  estimated  by  the 
amount  spent  on  food: 

Table  13.    Relation  Between  Income  and  Underfeeding  in 
American  Workingmen's  Families. 

Total  No. 

of  Underfed  families 

Annual  income  families         Number         Per  cent. 

$400-$599     25  19  76 

600-  799    151  48  32 

800-  899   73  16  22 

900-1099   94  8  9 

1 100  and  over 48  0  o 

Totals    391  9i  23.2 

The  figures  in  this  table  indicate  that  with  less 
than  $600  a  year  to  spend,  an  adequate  food  supply 
is  not  provided  in  three  families  out  of  four.  On 
incomes  from  $600  to  $800,  one  family  in  three  is 
underfed,  while  less  than  one-tenth  of  the  families 
having  $900  to  $1000  to  spend  fall  short  of  the 
minimum  allowance  for  food.  The  income  of  $1100 
for  a  family  of  five  is  apparently  a  safeguard  against 
underfeeding. 


NOON   LUNCH   IN  TWO  BUFFALO  SCHOOLS.       TABLECLOTHS   AND   WHITE   WARE 
TEACH   CLEANLINESS   AND   BEAUTY 


UNDERFEEDING  207 

INCOMES    OF    FAMILIES    OF    UNDERFED    SCHOOL 
CHILDREN 

The  study  made  by  Dr.  Chapin  was  not  directly 
concerned  with  the  problem  of  underfed  school 
children.  So  far  as  specific  investigations  have  been 
made  of  the  family  incomes  of  underfed  school 
children  Chapin's  findings  have  been  corroborated. 
The  most  careful  study  of  the  kind  yet  made  was 
that  conducted  by  the  New  York  School  Lunch 
Committee  in  1909.  This  study  covered  262  cases 
of  undernourished  children.  Records  were  made 
of  all  the  details  in  their  home  life  which  might 
bear  on  their  condition.  Some  of  the  results  were 
as  follows : 

Of  the  families  of  106  children,  it  was  found  that 
in  69  per  cent,  of  the  cases  the  yearly  income  fell 
below  $825.  The  families  were  grouped  accord- 
ing to  incomes  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  table : 

Table  14.    Incomes  of  Families  of  Underfed  Children 

Annual  income  Number  Per  cent. 

$825  and  over  33  31 

5oo-$8oo    38  36 

400-500    11  10 

Less  than  $400  24  23 

Totals    106  100 


208  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

HOME  FEEDING 

A  study  of  the  food  given  to  262  undernourished 
children  at  home  showed  that  93  per  cent,  had  tea 
or  coffee  every  day  and  of  these  nearly  40  per  cent, 
had  it  twice  a  day. 

Given  a  breakfast  of  tea  or  coffee  and  bread,  a 
great  many  of  these  children  had  to  wait  till  night 
time  for  a  real  meal.  In  nearly  ten  per  cent,  of  the 
cases  the  mother  worked  away  from  home  all  day 
and  could  not  prepare  any  lunch  at  noon.  In  23 
per  cent,  there  was  no  prepared  lunch  at  home  and 
the  children  had  to  get  it  for  themselves.  In  a  still 
larger  number  of  cases  forming  38  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  there  was  no  available  lunch  at  home  of  any 
kind  and  if  the  children  did  not  have  pennies  they 
had  nothing  at  noon.  This  makes  a  total  of  68  per 
cent,  for  whom  there  was  no  regular  provision  for 
a  noon-day  meal  at  home.  From  accounts  given 
by  the  mothers,  the  evening  meal  was  not  of  such 
character  as  to  make  up  for  the  other  poor  and 
irregular  meals.  Detailed  accounts  of  the  actual 
food  eaten  at  home  by  141  children  showed  that  J*J 
per  cent,  were  receiving  too  little  food  of  any  kind, 
leaving  suitability  out  of  the  question. 


UNDERFEEDING  209 

HOUSING 

But  poverty  may  affect  nutrition  in  other  ways 
besides  mechanically  limiting  the  food  supply.  Pov- 
erty means  narrow  living  quarters  and  even  a  limit 
to  the  supply  of  air.  This  was  well  illustrated  dur- 
ing the  same  investigation,  when  details  were  gath- 
ered of  the  housing  of  217  families  with  under- 
nourished children. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  persons 
to  a  room: 

Table  15.    Housing  of  Underfed  School  Children 

No.       Per  cent, 
i  person  or  less  per  room 17  8 

1-1.5  person  per  room  47  22 

1.5-2  persons  per  room  63  28 

2-2.5  persons  per  room 39  18 

2-5~3  persons  per  room  38  18 

Over  3  persons  per  room 13  6 

Total    217  100 

In  42  per  cent,  of  the  families  there  were  more 
than  two  persons  to  every  room  in  the  house.  This 
means  that  the  sleeping  rooms  were  even  more 
crowded  because  the  kitchen  is  included  in  the 
number  of  rooms.  In  17  families  there  was  a 
14 


210  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

room  for  each  member  of  the  family.  The  number 
of  rooms  taken  by  itself  is  only  a  rough  indication 
of  the  actual  condition  of  crowding  and  bad  air, 
because  of  the  fact  that  many  rooms  are  window- 
less.  Further,  in  the  old  style  "  railroad "  flat, 
which  still  outnumbers  any  other  style  in  New 
York,  the  "  rooms  "  are  simply  vaguely  defined  sec- 
tions in  a  long  corridor. 

Similar  investigations  into  the  social  and 
economic  factors  making  for  underfeeding  in  New 
York  and  other  cities  have  given  results  like  those 
just  outlined.  Among  the  conditions  making  for 
underfeeding  in  school  children,  especially  in  large 
cities,  are  overcrowding,  irregular  and  bad  food 
habits  and  actual  lack  of  enough  to  eat.  These  are 
not  the  only  ones,  but  they  are  the  important  ones, 
and  in  a  majority  of  cases  are  directly  traceable  to 
poverty. 


X 

Malnutrition  in  Childhood 


ITS    SYMPTOMS,    CAUSES,    RESULTS    AND 
CLASSIFICATION 

Malnutrition  is  the  name  given  to  the  bodily 
condition  arising  when,  for  any  reason,  the  tissues 
of  the  body  do  not  receive  enough  of  the  food  neces- 
sary to  build  them  up  and  to  furnish  energy  and 
vitality  for  functioning. 

In  England  and  Germany,  where  the  classification 
of  school  children  according  to  their  nutritive  con- 
dition has  been  a  matter  of  discussion  for  more  than 
ten  years  past,  it  has  been  found  that  five  grades  of 
nutrition  may  be  distinguished,  varying  through  ex- 
cellent, good,  fair,  poor  and  bad. 

Some  idea  of  what  these  various  grades  mean 
may  be  had  from  the  following  plan  which  has  been 
elaborated  by  Dr.  Hogarth  *  for  the  use  of  medical 
inspectors  in  English  schools. 

This  indicates  what  are  the  main  points  by  which 
nutrition  is  judged;    growth  as  shown  by  height 

1  Hogarth:   Medical  Inspection  of  Schools,  p.  158. 

211 


212 


SCHOOL  FEEDING 


and  weight;  bulk  as  shown  by  musculature  and 
the  character  of  the  external  tissues ;  and  circulation 
as  shown  by  complexion. 


Grade 

Stature  and 
growth 

Nutrition 

Circulation  and 
complexion 

I.  Excellent 
a.  Good 

3.  Fair  or  av- 

erage 

4.  Poor 

5.  Bad 

A  healthy  giant 

Well-grown 

Average 

Stunted 

Miserable,  de- 
formed 

Excellent  muscular 

development 
Well-n  0  u  r  i  s  h  e  d , 

healthy 
Medium 

Thin,    or   fat    and 

flabby  tissue 
Very  thin 

Ruddy  and  bronzed 
Healthy  pink 
Average 
Anaemic,  sallow 
Pallid 

If  a  child  fails  consistently  to  measure  up  to  his 
racial  standard  of  height  and  weight  for  his  age, 
the  chances  are  that  the  cause  is  chronic  malnu- 
trition. 

If  a  child's  superficial  circulation  is  bad,  as  shown 
by  his  general  lack  of  color,  by  the  loose  feeling  and 
flabby  look  of  his  skin,  and  especially  by  the  pale 
color  of  the  mucous  membranes  about  and  in  the 
mouth  and  about  the  eyes — the  cause  is  probably 
malnutrition.  Rough  hair,  not  necessarily  untidy, 
a  furred  tongue  and  a  bad  breath  are  other  signs. 

Right  here  may  be  mentioned  a  symptom  which, 
while  as  yet  little  known,  is  coming  to  be  accepted 
as  a  most  certain  indication  of  acute  malnutrition. 


MALNUTRITION  IN  CHILDREN      213 

This  is  the  appearance  of  small  reddish  spots  under 
the  skin,  known  as  purpuric  petechias  They  are 
really  capillary  hemorrhages  and  though  sometimes 
confused  with  flea  bites  are  the  result  of  insufficient 
or  unsuitable  feeding  and  disappear  in  a  short  time 
with  proper  feeding. 

Even  more  prominent  are  the  mental  symptoms 
of  malnutrition.  The  animal  spirits  and  vitality 
of  normal  children  are  lacking  in  those  who  are 
underfed,  who  are  easily  fatigued  and  listless  in 
play  and  work  and  show  this  even  to  a  casual  ob- 
server by  the  expression  of  their  eyes  and  entire 
face. 

This  characteristic  lack  of  vitality  means,  too, 
that  the  children  succumb  easily  to  infectious  dis- 
eases of  all  sorts.  Similarly,  the  undernourished 
body  cannot  repair  quickly  the  minor  injuries,  cuts 
and  bruises  of  childhood. 

CAUSES 

In  general,  the  body  fails  to  grow  properly  or 
to  function  harmoniously — that  is  it  is  malnourished 
— if  as  a  whole  it  is  not  supplied  with  enough  of 
the  right  kind  of  food. 

The  food  provided  may  be  lacking  in  quantity  or 


214  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

it  may  be  of  bad  quality,  adulterated,  badly  pre- 
pared, etc.  In  any  case  the  body  is  not  getting  what 
it  needs. 

Because  of  the  conversion  of  food  into  tissues 
and  life  energy  requires  the  co-operation  of  many 
different  organs  involving  many  chemical  and  physi- 
cal forces,  there  may  be  a  truly  formidable  number 
of  hindrances  and  perversions  in  the  process. 

The  causes  of  malnutrition  may  in  general  be 
grouped  according  as  it  results  in  one  of  two  ways : 
one,  the  insufficient  building  up  of  tissue;  two,  the 
excessive  breaking  down  of  tissue.  A  more  obscure 
problem  of  malnutrition  lies  in  hereditary  and  con- 
genital conditions  which  may  cause  arrested  or  de- 
layed development. 

I.  i.  The  main  cause  of  an  insufficient  building  up 
of  tissues  is  deficiency  of  food  in  quantity  or  quality. 

2.  The  second  cause  is  faulty  assimilation,  that 
is  digestion  and  absorption.  This  may  result 
mechanically  from  insufficient  mastication  because  of 
hurried  meals,  or  bad  teeth,  or  because  of  an  excess 
of  liquids.    Bad  teeth  is  the  most  frequent  of  these. 

Strong  tea  and  coffee,  alcoholic  drinks  and  smok- 
ing may  interfere  chemically  with  assimilation. 

3.  After  the  food  leaves  the  alimentary  canal, 


MALNUTRITION  IN  CHILDREN      215 

ready  for  carriage  to  the  other  parts  of  the  body, 
defects  in  the  lymphatic  system,  particularly  those 
caused  by  subacute  or  chronic  tubercular  conditions, 
may  hinder  it  from  arriving  at  its  destination.  This 
constitutes  a  third  possible  cause. 

4.  The  fourth  cause  of  an  insufficient  building  up 
of  tissues  is  a  deficiency  of  oxidization  resulting 
from  (a)  the  quality  of  air  breathed;  (6)  a  defi- 
ciency of  air  entering  the  lungs  because  of  nasal 
obstructions  such  as  catarrh,  adenoids,  etc.,  or  de- 
fects of  the  chest  from  rickets,  bad  posture,  tight 
clothing;  (c)  circulatory  defects  in  tubes  or  capil- 
laries, mechanical  defects  of  the  heart,  anaemia, 
lymph  stagnation  from  want  of  exercise. 
II.  Excessive  breaking  down  of  tissues  may 
accompany : 

1.  A  nervous  condition  arising  from  insufficient 
sleep,  late  hours,  irritation  from  vermin. 

2.  Overwork  and  chronic  fatigue. 

3.  Recovery  from  fevers. 

These  causes  are  not  of  equal  value,  many  may 
exist  at  once  and  all  are  interrelated.  Bad  and 
insufficient  food  results  in  badly  formed  and  weak- 
ened teeth  and  other  defective  structures,  whose 
impaired  powers  of  functioning  make  it  difficult  for 


216  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

them  to  receive  the  full  benefit  of  good  food.  It  is 
a  vicious  circle.  However,  it  is  an  important  fact  to 
remember  that  malnutrition,  whatever  the  cause, 
cannot  be  cured  without  good  food  and  enough  of  it. 
The  most  frequent  results  and  accompaniments 
of  malnutrition  are  anaemia,  stunted  growth, 
diminished  energy  and  lowered  vitality  as  shown 
by  weakened  resistance  to  diseases.  All  these  things 
have  been  studied  with  considerable  care  in  differ- 
ent countries  by  experts  interested  in  the  develop- 
ment of  children.  The  following  are  the  results  of 
some  of  this  study. 

ANEMIA 

Anaemia,  which  is  the  term  used  for  deficiency 
of  blood,  particularly  of  the  red  corpuscles  in  the 
blood,  is  the  frequent  accompaniment  of  malnu- 
trition. It  is  seldom  or  never  found  in  the  well- 
nourished  body,  but  it  may  occur  in  a  body  that  is 
fairly  nourished.  Its  most  common  indication  is 
pallor,  which  may  be  general  or,  in  the  case  of  dark 
complexioned  children,  it  may  be  seen  only  in  the 
mucous  membranes  about  the  eyes,  the  gums,  the 
inside  of  the  cheeks,  etc.  Frequently  a  blood  test 
is  necessary  to  detect  its  presence. 


MALNUTRITION  IN  CHILDREN      217 

Anaemia  is  extremely  common  among  school  chil- 
dren, especially  in  towns.  How  it  varies  with  the 
state  of  nutrition  of  the  children  is  illustrated  by 
the  results  of  the  investigation  of  716  cases  among 
school  children  in  the  poorer  districts  of  London.2 
These  children  were  classified  in  five  groups  on  the 
basis  of  nutrition.  Those  rated  as  "  excellent  "  and 
"  very  good  "  were  found  to  include  practically  no 
cases  of  anaemia.  Among  those  rated  "  good  "  the 
percentage  suffering  from  anaemia  was  59;  among 
the  "  fair,"  89 ;   and  among  the  "  bad,"  93. 

Dr.  Gastpar  8  of  Stuttgart  reports  a  more  exten- 
sive investigation  of  anaemia  covering  over  8000 
cases.  These  children  were  classified  as  to  nutrition 
into  "  good,"  "  fair  "  and  "  bad  "  groups.  In  round 
numbers  there  were  2000  in  the  first  group;  4000 
in  the  second;  and  2000  in  the  third.  Among  the 
children  classified  as  "  good  "  there  were  no  cases 
of  anaemia ;  among  those  classified  as  "  fair  "  the 
percentage  was  34 ;  among  the  "  bad  "  it  was  49. 

To  summarize,  anaemia,  as  the  word  is  commonly 
understood,  means  an  impoverished  blood  supply. 

3  Report  Educational  Commission,  London  County  Council, 
1009,  p.  19. 

8  Gastpar,  Dr. :  Die  Beurteilung  des  Eruahrungszustandes 
der  Schulkinder. 


218  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

It  is  a  symptom,  but  not  an  invariable  one,  of  chronic 
under-nourishment.  Among  its  causes  which  are 
like  those  of  malnutrition  are  insufficient  or  im- 
proper feeding,  hereditary  disease,  frequent  hemor- 
rhages, general  debility  following  acute  diseases, 
rickets,  insufficient  sleep,  and  want  of  fresh  air. 

When  found  among  the  children  of  the  well-to-do 
it  simply  gives  the  effect  of  pallor  and  the  skin  is 
often  of  fine  texture.  When  it  is  found  among 
children  who  are  underfed  and  come  from  crowded 
homes,  the  prominent  symptom  is  the  earthy  tinge 
of  the  skin  together  with  other  characteristic  signs 
mentioned  as  "  symptoms  of  malnutrition." 

HEIGHT    AND    WEIGHT    MEASUREMENTS 

In  general  cases  of  malnutrition  may  be  divided 
into  two  types.  The  first  is  the  result  of  chronic 
underfeeding  or  incorrect  feeding,  and  its  results 
are  shown  in  the  child  by  constant  failure  to  come 
up  to  the  average  of  weight  and  height,  lung  ca- 
pacity, grip,  etc.  The  second  type  of  malnutrition 
is  temporary  in  character  and  its  results  are  shown, 
not  by  a  deficit  in  both  weight  and  height,  but  by  a 
deficit  in  weight  alone  as  compared  with  height. 
In  the  first  place  the  child  will  be  diminutive,  in  the 
second,  starved — both  problems  of  nutrition. 


MALNUTRITION  IN  CHILDREN       219 

The  standard  of  absolute  height  and  weight  at 
different  ages  differs  according  to  race  and  climate 
in  countries.  In  spite  of  these  differences,  height 
and  weight  still  remain  the  surest  single  indication 
of  nutrition.  They  may  also  be  recorded  more 
easily  than  any  other.  The  direct  and  definite  way 
with  which  they  do  vary  with  nutrition  is  shown 
in  the  investigation  into  the  physical  condition  of 
school  children  conducted  in  1907  by  Dr.  Leslie 
Mackenzie  and  Captain  Foster  of  Glasgow.  This 
is  the  biggest,  most  extensive  and  careful  investiga- 
tion of  the  kind  ever  conducted.  It  includes  72,800 
cases  varying  from  five  to  fifteen  years,  and  cover- 
ing all  of  the  children  in  the  public  schools  of  the 
city.  The  fact  which  is  significant  in  this  connection 
is  that  the  children  are  divided  into  four  groups, 
in  accordance  with  the  number  of  rooms  in  their 
houses — whether  one  room,  two  rooms,  three  or 
four  rooms  and  more. 

In  a  crowded  city  like  Glasgow,  the  size  of  the 
house  is  a  fair  index  of  the  degree  of  comfort  or 
poverty  of  the  family.  There  are  exceptions,  in 
cases  of  especially  small  families,  but  when  tens 
of  thousands  of  cases  figure  in  the  data,  the  number 
of  rooms  is  a  trustworthy  index  of  the  economic 
status.    The  one-room  child  is  the  poverty  stricken 


220  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

child,  and  hence  the  underfed  child.  The  four- 
room  child  on  the  other  hand  belongs  to  a  family 
much  better  situated  economically.  The  truth  of 
these  principles  is  forcibly  illustrated  by  the  results 
obtained  in  the  investigation  under  consideration. 
When  the  average  height  and  weight  of  the  chil- 
dren of  the  different  groups  are  taken,  it  appears 
that  the  child  from  the  one-room  house  is  always 
lighter  and  shorter  than  the  child  from  the  two- 
room.  He  in  turn  is  shorter  and  does  not  weigh 
so  much  as  the  child  in  the  three-room  house — who 
in  turn  is  the  physical  inferior  of  the  child  living 
in  a  house  of  four  rooms  or  more.  These  results 
are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Table  16.    Average  Height  and  Weight  of  all  Children 
from  5~i8  Years,  According  to  Housing 

Average  weight  Average  height 
Housing                                           in  pounds  in  inches 

1  room     52.0  46.5 

2  rooms  55-5  48.9 

3  rooms  60.0  50.4 

4  rooms    64.9  51.5 

In  the  following  chart  the  average  weights  for 
the  one-,  two-,  three-  and  four-room  children,  from 
5  to  14  years  old,  are  represented  by  the  upright 
columns  in  black.  It  will  be  seen  that  for  each  age 
the  first  column  represents  the  average  weight  of 


MALNUTRITION  IN  CHILDREN       Ml 


the  one-room  child  and  that  these  are  consistently 
less  than  the  weight  of  the  two-room  child  in  the 
next  column.    This  is  true  of  every  age — up  to  18, 

90  » 


1 

eo 

1?    f 

12       jT    J| 

70 

11       rlillm 

10          n  rjl  I J 

60    ■ 

9     J| 

50    ■ 

6    7  rtiilfl 

do    , 

ill 

30    • 

20     • 

10 

um  Hi  l 

II.    Average  weights  of  one-room,  two-room,  three-room  and  four-room 
children  at  each  age  from  five  to  fourteen. 

but  the  number  examined  of  children  older  than 
15  was  too  small  to  be  of  statistical  value.  A 
similar  diagram  constructed  to  show  the  heights  at 


222  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

each  age  would  be  almost  identical  and  show  with 
equal  clearness  the  relation  of  housing  to  nutrition 
and  nutrition  to  development. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  get  more  striking  proof 
than  these  figures  show  of  the  immediate  and  in- 
timate relation  between  the  state  of  nutrition  and 
the  amount  of  development  that  is  accordingly- 
possible. 

STANDARD  AMERICAN  MEASUREMENTS 

As  the  problems  of  development  and  nutrition 
receive  increasing  attention  in  this  country  it  is 
necessary  to  have  available  for  reference  some 
standard  measurements.  The  British  Anthropomet- 
ric Association  has  been  at  work  compiling  figures 
for  the  use  of  British  investigators  and  scientists, 
but  their  figures,  though  probably  not  seriously  un- 
suited  for  use  in  this  country,  cannot  be  used  for 
exact  work.  The  accompanying  tables  (Nos.  Ill 
and  IV)  compiled  by  Dr.  Wood,  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, are  in  part  the  result  of  measurements  made 
periodically  during  ten  years  on  thousands  of  boys 
and  girls  attending  the  Horace  Mann  School.  The 
figures  gotten  in  this  way  were  compared  and 
checked  up  with  those  of  Drs.  Bowditch  and  Hast- 
ings, and  with  the  standard  adopted  by  the  British 


MALNUTRITION  IN  CHILDREN      223 

Anthropometric  Association.    The  tables  show  the 
standard  mean  variations  in  weight  as  related  to 

III.  Relative  Weight  and  Height  Table — Boys. 
The  figures  under  the  age  column  represent  weight  in  pounds. 


Years. 

mm 

Jt 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

ZO 

XI 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

39 

35 

40 

38 

36 

41 

39 

39 

42 

41 

41 

43 

42 

42 

42 

44 

46 

8 

43 

45 

46 

45 

46 

48 

48 

48 

47 

49 

50 

50 

48 

54 

53 

53 

53 

49 

54 

55 

55 

50 

57 

58 

58 

51 

59 

60 

60 

61 

52 

62 

62 

61 

63 

53 

62 

65 

65 

67 

67 

67 

54 

65 

68 

68 

70 

71 

71 

55 

69 

71 

75 

75 

76 

56 

71 

77 

76 

78 

79 

79 

57 

77 

79 

80 

82 

82 

58 

78 

84 

85 

86 

87 

59 

84 

86 

90 

91 

60 

85 

91 

94 

95 

90 

6l 

98 

97 

99 

96 

62 

99 

103 

106 

104 

104 

£3 

IOO 

107 

112 

112 

110 

118 

24 

114 

118 

120 

117 

I20 

120 

65 

122 

119 

122 

122 

120 

126 

125 

66 

121 

125 

125 

126 

129 

130 

67 

128 

129 

128 

131 

134 

132 

68 

133 

133 

I30 

136 

136 

136 

69 

134 

136 

139 

139 

139 

70 

136 

140 

143 

144 

145 

71 

140 

146 

I46 

I46 

72 

149 

154 

73 

165 

height,  at  different  ages,  from  five  to  twenty  years. 
A  perfectly  well  child  of  ten  years  may  be  anywhere 
from  48  to  56  inches  in  height  and  weigh  anywhere 


224 


SCHOOL  FEEDING 


from  53  to  71  pounds,  but  if  his  weight  does  not 
correspond  with  his  height,  or  if  he  is  less  than  48 
inches  tall,  there  is  something  wrong  with  his  de- 
velopment and  probably  with  his  nutrition. 

IV.  Relative  Weight  and  Height  Table — Girls. 
The  figures  under  the  age  column  represent  weight  in  pounds. 


a 

* <  CO 

Years. 

4>  V 

11 

£ 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

ZQ 

XX 

12 

13 

14 

IS 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

39 

34 

40 

37 

35 

41 

38 

37 

42 

41 

39 

39 

43 

41 

41 

42 

44 

45 

43 

44 

42 

45 

45 

45 

45 

46 

48 

47 

47 

47 

SO 

49 

49 

48 

51 

51 

49 

53 

53 

54 

SO 

56 

56 

57 

51 

59 

58 

60 

53 

63 

62 

62 

63 

53 

64 

63 

66 

65 

54 

69 

68 

69 

68 

55 

70 

71 

73 

S6 

75 

75 

76 

78 

57 

78 

80 

83 

58 

83 

86 

88 

89 

59 

88 

89 

93 

97 

IOO 

60 

94 

94 

96 

IOO 

104 

109 

103 

99 

99 

61 

99 

IOO 

102 

109 

109 

106 

105 

111 

62 

104 

104 

106 

III 

110 

107 

III 

114 

63 

107 

109 

116 

no 

112 

113 

114 

64 

112 

118 

116 

117 

114 

119 

US 

65 

114 

118 

121 

125 

120 

123 

125 

This  method  of  calculation  is  much  more  exact, 
especially  in  a  heterogeneous  group,  such  as  may 
be  found  in  any  American  city,  than  the  easy  and 
crude  method  of  measuring  development  at  each  age 
by  a  single  figure  for  weight  or  height. 


MALNUTRITION  IN  CHILDREN       225 

RESULTS 
MALNUTRITION  AND  MENTAL  DEFECTS 

The  relation  of  malnutrition  to  mental  defective- 
ness has  long  been  given  substantial  recognition 
both  here  and  abroad  in  the  provision  of  lunches 
in  special  schools  for  subnormal  children.  Dr. 
Collie,  Medical  Inspector  of  the  London  School 
Committee,  declared  in  this  connection  before  the 
Committee  on  Physical  Deterioration,  that  "  mental 
disability  is  not  only  preventable  but,  in  many  cases, 
curable.  In  a  large  number  of  instances,  after  the 
careful  individual  attention  and  midday  dinner  of 
the  special  schools,  children  are  returned  to  the 
regular  elementary  schools  after  from  sixteen  to 
eighteen  months  with  a  new  lease  of  mental  vigour." 

Dr.  Brown  Ritchie,  reporting  for  Manchester, 
stated  that  of  the  641  mentally  defective  children  in 
that  city,  325  could  be  classed  as  having  poor  nu- 
trition, while  in  were  marked  cases,  making  a 
total  of  68  per  cent,  showing  malnutrition. 

Similarly,  of  10 12  children  in  classes  for  mental 

defectives  in  New  York  in  1908,  60  per  cent,  were 

found  to  be  suffering  from  malnutrition.     Similar 

data  come  from  Plauen  in  Germany,  where  it  is 

15 


226  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

stated  that  underfeeding  is  the  main  cause  for  chil- 
dren being  in  the  special  schools  for  mental 
defectives. 

The  only  case  on  record  where  the  relation  be- 
tween malnutrition  and  simple  retardation  has  been 
quantitatively  estimated,  occurs  in  one  district  of 
Manchester,  Conn.  All  the  children  in  eight  grades 
were  specially  examined,  in  order  to  determine  what 
features  of  their  physical  condition  or  of  their  home 
environment  might  be  responsible  for  non-promo- 
tion. Of  1396  children  examined,  174,  or  12  per 
cent.,  were  malnutrition  cases.  But  the  percentage 
of  malnutrition  in  the  promoted  group  was  9,  as 
opposed  to  25  in  the  left  back  group.  Malnutrition 
was  found  to  be  second  only  to  poor  mentality  in  its 
retarding  influence.4 

In  many  of  these  cases  the  explanation  seems  to 
be  that  these  children  are  functionally  mentally  de- 
fective; in  other  words,  their  brains  are  starved 
and  naturally  fail  to  react  to  the  ordinary  methods 
of  elementary  teaching. 

4Ayres,  Leonard  P.:  A  Simple  System  of  Discovering 
Some  Factors  Influencing  Non-promotion,  Psychological 
Ginic,  vol.  iv,  No.  7,  Dec.  15,  1910. 


MALNUTRITION  IN  CHILDREN       227 

MALNUTRITION    AND   PHYSICAL   DEFECTS 

Emmet  Holt,  an  American  authority  on  chil- 
dren's diseases,  says  that  "  one  of  the  most  striking 
things  about  children  suffering  from  malnutrition 
is  their  vulnerability.  They  'take*  everything. 
There  is  but  little  resistance  to  any  infectious  dis- 
ease which  the  child  may  contract." 

A  most  careful  investigation,  bearing  on  the  cor- 
relation between  malnutrition  and  physical  defects, 
was  conducted  by  Dr.  Gastpar,  of  Stuttgart.5  He 
examined  some  8000  children  in  all  classes  of  the 
public  schools  who  were  suffering  from  one  or 
more  of  thirteen  diseases.  These  children  he  divided 
into  five  classes,  according  to  the  state  of  their  nutri- 
tion, by  the  method  already  described.  He  found 
that  with  one  exception  the  largest  percentage  of 
disease  was  present  among  the  badly  nourished, 
anaemic  children. 

Some  of  the  differences  were  striking.  Diseased 
glands  occurred  in  12  per  cent,  of  the  worst  nour- 
ished and  in  only  5  per  cent,  of  the  best  nourished. 
Adenoids,  perhaps  the  most  familiar  disease  of  the 
school  child,  occurred  in  26  per  cent,  of  the  worst 

0  Gastpar :    Op.  cit. 


228 


SCHOOL  FEEDING 


nourished  cases,  as  compared  with  17  per  cent,  of 
the  well  nourished.  Unhealthy  heart  murmurs 
occurred  in  26  per  cent,  of  the  badly  nourished,  and 
only  in  3  per  cent,  of  the  well  nourished. 

There  was  no  tuberculosis  in  the  class  marked 
good.  Tuberculosis  of  the  lungs  varied  from  .07 
per  cent,  in  the  fairly  nourished  to  3  per  cent,  in  the 
worst  nourished. 

Other  diseases,  such  as  rickets,  vermin  and  ear 
troubles,  showed  similar  variations  in  their  occur- 
rence. Albuminuria  alone  of  the  thirteen  diseases 
involved  seems  to  have  no  special  correlation  with 
malnutrition,  the  largest  percentage  (3)  occurring 
in  the  class  marked  "fair,  with  anaemia,"  while  the 
two  last  groups  showed  only  2  per  cent,  apiece  of 
this  trouble. 


Table  17.  Relation  of  Nutrition  and  Vulnerability  to 
Disease 


Class  of  Nutrition 

3 

8 

■ 
■ 

S 

d 
3 

w 

(0 

1 

1 

1 

s 

■ 
>> 
W 

11 

S3 .2 

Us 

m 

■ 

1 

Q 
•3 

•0 

4) 

31 

S3 

H 
O 
O 

a 

10  2  8 
SIS 

1.  Good 

8 

20 

260 

77 

36s 

1984 

18 

49 

82 

529 

379 

1039 

2625 

39 

3.  Fair  and  anaemia 

IS 

70 

253 

289 

627 

138s 

45 

25 

06 

209 

314 

644 

1045 

62 

5.  Poor  and  anaemia 

31 

103 

210 

441 

78s 

998 

79 

128 

37X 

I46 1 

1500 

3460 

8037 

43 

^         MALNUTRITION  IN  CHILDREN 

The  following  table  shows  the  results  of  the  study- 
in  the  cases  of  the  four  most  important  diseases : 

The  important  feature  of  the  table  is  the  column 
of  percentages  at  the  right  hand.  It  will  be  noted 
from  this  that  of  the  children  classed  as  "  good  " 
with  respect  to  their  nutrition,  only  18  per  cent,  are 
found  to  have  these  physical  defects.  This  percent- 
age steadily  and  rapidly  advances  as  we  pass  to  the 
"  fair "  children  and  those  who  are  "  fair  with 
anaemia,"  and  so  on  to  the  last  group  classed  as 
"  poor  with  anaemia,"  where  the  percentage  has 
reached  79.  In  other  words,  among  children  classed 
as  "  good  "  only  one  in  five  was  defective ;  among 
those  classed  as  "  poor  with  anaemia  "  four  out  of 
five  were  defective. 

CLASSIFICATION  AND  RECORDING  OF  NUTRITION  OF 

SCHOOL   CHILDREN:   PROFESSIONAL  AND 

LAY  DIAGNOSIS 

After  reading  the  necessarily  vague  and  general 
instructions  for  passing  judgment  on  the  fact  and 
degree  of  malnutrition,  it  is  not  surprising  to  learn 
that  there  is  great  variability  in  the  recorded  results 
of  such  examinations.  This  is  true  when  the  exam- 
ining is  being  done  by  medical  men,  and  the  differ- 


230  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

ences  are  even  greater  when  children  are  first  ex- 
amined and  reported  on  by  their  teachers  and  these 
results  are  checked  up  by  the  school  doctors. 

A  pertinent  example  is  found  in  the  examinations 
recently  conducted  in  German  cities.6  A  large  num- 
ber of  such  examinations,  some  of  them  covering 
nearly  170,000  cases  in  68  cities,  showed  that  where 
the  teachers  reported  the  nutrition  of  73  per  cent, 
of  the  children  as  good;  that  of  22  per  cent,  as 
fair;  and  that  of  the  remaining  5  per  cent,  as  bad; 
the  school  physicians,  examining  the  same  children, 
reported  the  good  cases  as  being  42  per  cent,  of 
all;  the  fair  ones  50  per  cent.;  and  the  bad  8  per 
cent.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  doctors  found  a  much 
smaller  percentage  of  children  whom  they  could 
put  in  the  first  class,  and  a  larger  percentage  of  those 
fairly  and  badly  nourished. 

Because  of  results  like  these  and  because  the  sub- 
ject of  the  nutrition  of  school  children  is  so  im- 
portant, and  at  the  same  time  so  complex,  its  proper 
classification  and  recording  has  recently  been  studied 
with  great  care  by  scientists  in  Germany  and 
England. 

The  most  practical  scheme  yet  devised  for  work- 

'Kaup:    Die  Ernahr.  der  Volks.,  pp.  95-100. 


MALNUTRITION  IN  CHILDREN       231 

ing  with  great  numbers  of  children  is  that  of  Dr. 
Gastpar,  Director  of  Medical  Inspection  in  Stutt- 
gart.7 This  plan,  which  represents  the  accumu- 
lated experience  of  many  years  and  has  been  en- 
dorsed by  English  workers,  is  as  follows : 

i.  There  is  first  an  individual  examination  of 
each  child,  in  which  measurements  of  height  and 
weight  are  taken,  and  the  state  of  nutrition  deter- 
mined by  these  and  other  factors  such  as  the  state 
of  the  superficial  circulation,  the  musculature,  skin 
tonicity,  the  condition  of  the  mucous  membrane,  the 
expression  of  the  eyes  and  the  entire  face,  the  rough- 
ness or  smoothness  of  the  hair,  etc.  At  the  same 
time,  other  physical  defects  are  noted  that  may  bear 
upon  nutrition,  as  the  condition  of  the  teeth,  pres- 
ence or  absence  of  adenoids,  and  particularly  the 
presence  or  absence  of  anaemia. 

2.  After  these  records  have  been  made  for  each 
individual  child,  the  children  are  then  divided 
according  to  their  ages.  Then  the  children  of  each 
group  are  divided  into  those  having  anaemia  and 
those  without  it.  These  two  groups  are  further 
subdivided  until,  in  order  of  nutritional  excellence, 
children  in  each  age  group  stand  thus:  (i)  good; 

'Gastpar,  Op.  cit. 


232  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

(2)   fair;   (3)   fair  with  anaemia;   (4)  poor;   (5) 
poor  with  anaemia. 

Experience  in  the  application  of  this  plan  of  classi- 
fication has  developed  three  general  rules  that  are 
valid  for  application  in  any  country.  Briefly  these 
rules  are  as  follows : 

(a)  Every  child  is  examined  separately  in  a  room 
specially  provided,  where  the  light  and  temperature 
may  be  regulated. 

(b)  One  physician  should  make  all  the  examina- 
tions for  any  given  group  of  children. 

(c)  The  examining  physician  should  be  familiar 
with  the  racial  peculiarities  of  growth,  complexion, 
and  coloring. 

This  system  involves  time  and  care,  but  it  insures 
a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  in  a  subject  not  easy  to 
define  rigidly.  Some  such  scheme  is  absolutely 
necessary  if  experience  is  to  be  shared.  This  has 
been  found  specially  valuable  in  record  keeping  and 
in  finding  the  correlation  between  the  state  of  nutri- 
tion and  other  physical  conditions. 


XI 

Food  Needs  of  Growing  Children. 

Old  men  bear  the  want  of  food  best;  then  those  that  are 
full-grown ;  youths  bear  it  least,  most  especially  children,  and 
of  them  the  most  lively  are  the  least  capable  of  enduring  it. — 

Hippocrates. 

Growth  and  play  are  the  great  needs  of  the  child. 
Growth  means  the  development  of  new  body  cells, 
and  play  requires  energy,  which  is  simply  another 
name  for  heat.  The  only  source  of  material  for  the 
new  body  cells  and  of  fuel  for  the  heat  and  energy- 
is  food,  and  the  question  to  decide  is  how  much  and 
what  kinds  of  food  best  meet  the  two  great  needs. 

If  the  child  were  simply  a  little  man,  and  like  the 
man  in  everything  except  size,  it  would  be  an  easy 
matter  to  give  him  a  fraction  of  the  man's  food  in 
proportion  to  his  size.  But  this  is  not  the  case,  first, 
because  the  child  is  growing  and  therefore,  unlike 
the  man  whose  growth  is  past,  has  a  constant  need 
of  new  material  in  large  quantities.  Then,  because 
the  child  is  more  active,  physically  and  nervously,  he 
needs  more  heat  and  energy  in  proportion  to  his 
size  than  the  man, 

233 


23*  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

To  plan  rightly  for  the  child's  particular  needs, 
we  must  first  know  what  foods  will  best  form  tissue, 
and  which  ones  will  best  supply  heat  and  energy. 
As  foods  perform  these  two  functions  they  are 
classified  in  two  great  groups,  corresponding  to  the 
kind  of  contribution  that  they  predominantly  make. 
These  two  groups  are  the  Proteins,  or  structural 
foods,  and  the  fuel  or  energy  suppliers,  which  in- 
clude Carbohydrates  and  Fats. 

protein:  the  tissue  builder 

The  word  "  Protein "  comes  from  the  Greek 
"  protos,"  meaning  "  first,"  and  it  is  used  to  desig- 
nate the  tissue-building  elements  in  food,  because 
these  are  the  first  and  basal  elements  in  all  life, 
whether  animal  or  vegetable.  The  reason  they  are 
so  important  is  because  they  contain,  among  other 
things,  the  chemical  element  Nitrogen,  which  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  cell  growth.  Though  pro- 
teins are  found  in  varying  proportions  in  nearly 
all  animal  or  plant  tissues,  they  are  found  chiefly  in 
the  parts  which  are  centres  of  growth  and  vital 
activity  such  as  the  muscles,  milk  and  eggs  of  ani- 
mals and  the  seeds  of  plants.  Thus  they  are  found 
in  large  quantities  in  such  foods  as  the  lean  of  meats 


FOOD  NEEDS  OF  CHILDREN         235 

and  fish,  eggs,  milk,  peas,  beans,  lentils,  nuts  and 
the  grains  like  rice,  oats,  and  wheat. 

When  proteins  are  digested  and  assimilated,  they 
form  the  vital  or  living  part  of  the  cells,  and  com- 
pose from  one-sixth  to  one-tenth  of  the  body  weight. 

During  adult  life,  the  breaking  down  and  building 
up  of  cells  is  a  slow  process,  and  comparatively  little 
new  material  is  needed  each  day.  The  daily  need  of 
the  cells  for  protein  has  been  estimated  at  anywhere 
from  0.85  gram  per  kilo  of  body  weight *  (the 
lowest  possible  amount)  to  1.6  grams  (the  highest 
American  standard).2  This  means  for  an  average 
man  weighing  about  70  kilos,  or  1 50  pounds,  a  daily 
ration  including  enough  meats,  milk,  eggs,  cheese, 
bread,  peas  or  beans,  etc.,  to  give  from  60  to  115 
grams  of  protein  elements.  A  gram  is  approxi- 
mately 1/454  of  a  pound,  or  1/30  of  an  ounce. 

During  childhood,  the  period  of  greater  cell  activ- 
ity, the  daily  standard  of  protein  need  has  been  estab- 
lished by  custom  3  and  experiment 4  at  an  amount 
ranging  from  2.5  to  1.4  grams  per  kilo  of  body 
weight.  That  is,  according  to  different  authorities, 
a  child  weighing  anywhere  from  20  to  35  kilos  will 

1  Chittenden.  *  Camerer. 

8  Atwater.  4  Siegert  and  Lungwitz. 


236  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

require  an  average  daily  amount  of  from  39  to  70 
grams  of  protein. 

To  summarize:  the  amount  of  tissue-building 
food  required  by  the  child  during  the  growing  period 
is  five-fourths  of  what  is  required  by  a  man,  com- 
paring weight  with  weight. 

CARBOHYDRATES  AND  FATS  I  THE  ENERGY  SUPPLIERS 

Carbohydrates  is  the  name  given  to  the  two 
foods,  sugar  and  starch,  which  have  about  the  same 
chemical  composition,  both  containing  approxi- 
mately 44  per  cent,  carbon,  6  per  cent,  hydrogen, 
and  49  per  cent,  oxygen.  Sugars  and  starches  are 
found  in  substantial  vegetables  like  potatoes,  corn 
and  grains,  sugar  cane,  beets  and  bananas — that  is, 
in  the  parts  of  plants  that  are  used  for  storing  the 
plant's  own  food  materials. 

The  function  of  carbohydrates  is  to  supply  heat 
and  energy  which  enable  the  body  to  do  its  muscular 
and  nervous  work.  Once  digested,  they  are  either 
burned  immediately  and  reduced  to  gas  and  water, 
setting  free  heat  and  energy  in  the  process,  or  they 
are  stored  for  future  use.  Before  being  stored 
carbohydrates  are  almost  entirely  converted  into  fat, 
and  in  their  original  form  constitute  only  about  one 
per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  body. 


FOOD  NEEDS  OF  CHILDREN         237 

Fats,  which  perform  the  same  function  as  the 
carbohydrates,  are  found  most  abundantly  in  butter, 
cream,  cheese,  meat,  fish,  nuts  and  vegetable  oils. 
Their  chief  value  is  that  they  supply  bulk  for  bulk 
over  twice  as  much  fuel  as  the  sugars  or  starches, 
because  they  contain  a  far  larger  amount  of  carbon. 
But  oxygen  is  present  in  far  less  quantities,  and  this 
means  that  the  fuel  is  not  so  easily  available  as  in 
the  carbohydrates. 

In  the  human  body  the  fats  constitute  the  great 
storehouse  of  reserve  material  from  which  energy 
and  heat  may  be  taken  when  the  supply  from  food 
temporarily  becomes  short.  Fat  occurs  in  minute 
particles  scattered  throughout  the  various  tissues 
and  in  masses  under  the  skin,  where  it  helps  to  con- 
serve the  bodily  heat  from  too  rapid  irradiation. 
Because  the  proportion  of  skin  surface  to  bulk  is 
greater  in  children's  bodies  than  in  adults,  their 
bodily  heat  is  lost  more  quickly,  and  this  makes 
the  fats  of  special  value  in  this  period. 

Although  the  special  function  of  protein  is  to 
build  tissue,  it  does  contain  elements  similar  to 
those  found  in  carbohydrates,  and  these  may  serve  as 
fuel.  However,  the  presence  of  nitrogen  hinders  their 
being  completely  burned,  so  that  protein  is  not  as 
economical  a  form  of  fuel  as  carbohydrates  and  fats. 


238  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

As  a  summary  of  experience  with  children's  fuel 
needs  it  may  be  said  that  in  proportion  to  their 
weights  they  require  on  an  average  from  one- 
quarter  to  one-half  more  foods  yielding  heat  and 
energy  than  do  adults. 

INORGANIC  SUBSTANCES  IN  FOOD 

In  addition  to  the  need  of  material  and  energy 
that  are  supplied  by  the  organic  food  compounds, 
the  child  must  have  lime  in  large  quantities  for  tooth 
and  bone  building.  This  is  found  in  its  most  avail- 
able form  in  milk,  but  also  occurs  in  meats  and  in 
association  with  protein  generally.  Other  mineral 
needs  are  common  salt,  potassium,  phosphorus, 
sulphur  and  iron.  These  are  found  mostly  in  com- 
pound with  organic  foods,  the  chief  value  of  watery 
vegetables,  like  celery,  cabbage  and  spinach,  being 
in  the  salts  that  they  hold  in  solution.  These  inor- 
ganic substances,  where  they  do  not  help  to  form 
cells,  are  used  as  aids  in  secretion  and  digestion, 
and  their  value  in  the  child's  bodily  economy  is 
being  more  and  more  recognized. 

The  materials  so  far  described,  protein,  sugars, 
starches,  fats  and  mineral  substances,  together  make 
up  about  one-third  of  the  weight  of  the  body.  The 
rest  is  water,  which,  though  it  furnishes  neither  liv- 


FOOD  NEEDS  OF  CHILDREN         239 

ing  tissue  nor  fuel,  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the 
carrying  on  of  vital  processes,  such  as  circulation, 
secretion  and  maintaining  a  constant  body  tempera- 
ture. The  minimum  allowance  of  water,  in  addition 
to  what  is  furnished  in  food,  has  been  placed  at 
about  a  quart  a  day  for  all  ages  beyond  infancy. 

MEASUREMENT   OF   FOOD   VALUES   BY    CALORIES 

The  fact  that  all  organic  foodstuffs  yield  heat  or 
energy  when  burnt  in  the  body  makes  it  possible  to 
measure  and  compare  them  by  a  single  unit  of 
measurement.  This  unit  is  the  Calorie,  which  is 
the  amount  of  heat  necessary  to  raise  one  kilogram 
of  water  one  degree  Centigrade,  or  one  pint  of  water 
four  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

In  applying  this  unit  it  is  assumed  that,  for  ex- 
ample, if  a  certain  quantity  of  white  of  tgg  or  cane 
sugar,  on  being  burned  outside  the  body,  yields 
enough  heat  to  raise  a  kilogram  of  water  one  degree 
Centigrade,  it  will  produce  the  same  amount  of  heat 
when  burned  inside  the  body. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  certain  foodstuffs  are  never 
completely  oxidized  within  the  body,  and  the  esti- 
mate of  the  real  fuel  value  of  any  food  takes  account 
only  of  the  material  finally  available  to  the  body. 
Once  the  component  parts  of  any  food  are  known, 


240  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

its  caloric  value  may  be  determined  by  the  use  of 
the  following  scheme  of  fuel  values: 

Protein :  Fuel  value,  4  Calories  per  gram ;  1,816  Calories  per  lb. 
Carbohydrates:      Fuel    value,    4    Calories    per    gram;    1,816 

Calories  per  lb. 
Fats :    Fuel  value,  9  Calories   per  gram ;  4,086  Calories  per  lb. 

A  list  of  common  foods,  showing  the  amount  of 
protein,  starch,  carbohydrates,  mineral  matter  and 
water  each  contains,  is  published  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  forms  the 
standard  reference  list  for  this  country.5 

DIETARIES  FOR  DIFFERENT  AGES 

In  general  we  have  seen  that  the  food  needs  of 
children  are  relatively  greater  than  those  of  adults, 
but  this  broad  statement  fails  to  distinguish  between 
the  needs  of  children  at  different  ages.  Dr.  Lang- 
worthy  has  indicated  these  differences  by  a  formula 
like  the  following: 

Taking  the  standard  requirement  to  be  that  of 
a  man  at  moderately  active  work 

The  child  under  2  years  requires  3/10  of  this. 
The  child  from  2  to  5  years  requires  4/10  of  this. 
The  child  from  6  to  9  years  requires  5/10  of  this. 
The  child  after  10  years  requires  from  6/10  to  9/10  of 
this. 

•  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  Office  of  Ex- 
periment Stations.     Bulletin  28  (Revised  Edition). 


FOOD  NEEDS  OF  CHILDREN 


241 


This  formula  has  the  disadvantage  of  not  indicat- 
ing the  relative  proportions  of  the  different  kinds 
of  foodstuffs  needed,  and  it  further  takes  no  account 
of  weights.    The  following  chart  represents  the  food 

Ik-  year 8 
HO  Kilos 


10  years 
26-2S     Kilos 


6-g  years 
Lg-20JCUos 


1&) 


235 


304 


V.  Daily  food  needs  in  grams  of  school  children  of  varying  ages  and 
weights.  Carbohydrates  in  outline;  fats  in  horizontal  lining;  protein  in 
solid  black. 

needs  of  children  at  three  different  school  periods, 
at  six,  at  ten  and  at  fourteen.  The  figures  upon 
which  it  is  based  are  taken  from  a  French  dietitian, 
Dr.  A.  Gautier.6     They  do  not  exactly  correspond 

'  Gautier,  Armand :  Diet  and  Dietetics.  Edited  and  trans- 
lated from  the  French  by  A.  J.  Rice  Oreley. 


242  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

to  figures  in  American  standards,  but  they  are 
sufficiently  near  the  average  to  show  how  food 
needs  progress  with  advancing  years. 

SCHOOL  DIETARIES 

In  computing  dietaries  for  use  at  school,  the  large 
numbers  and  different  ages  of  the  children  make  it 
necessary  to  use  average  ages  and  weights.  Experi- 
ence in  different  countries  has  shown  that  an  ample 
dietary  formed  with  the  needs  of  the  ten-year-old 
child  weighing  about  sixty  pounds,  or  27-28  kilos, 
about  meets  the  requirements  for  the  "  average 
child/ '  and,  by  making  the  portions  larger  or 
smaller,  may  be  modified  up  or  down  quite  easily 
to  suit  the  needs  of  older  and  younger  children. 

Those  in  charge  of  school  meals  have  first  to 
decide  how  much  the  total  daily  ration  of  the 
average  child  should  be  and  then  what  proportion 
of  this  shall  be  provided  in  the  school  meal  or  meals. 

The  following  table  shows  in  summary  form  the 
child's  daily  requirements  for  food  as  these  have 
been  worked  out,  first  by  three  men  in  the  school 
feeding  movement  of  three  different  countries,  Italy, 
Switzerland  and  England,  and  then  the  average 


FOOD  NEEDS  OF  CHILDREN         MS 

requirements  computed  by  fifteen  different  experts 
in  children's  food  needs: 

Table  18.    Daily  Food  Needs  of  the  Average  Child,  Age  io. 
Weight  27-28  Kilos 

Average  of 
Tonsig      Erisman    Crowley       is  experts 

Fat    23  41  57  40 

Protein    48  60  68  60 

Carbohydrates 282  225  288  250 

Calories   1531  1540  1937  1600 

Calories  per  kilo...     56  55  72  58 

Protein  per  kilo  ...       1.7  2.1  2.4  2 

The  first  three  estimates  represent  very  fairly 
a  low,  a  middle,  and  a  high  standard  of  food  needs, 
and  these  grades  are  indicated  particularly  in  the 
figures  for  protein  and  fat.  These  differences  are 
dependent  upon  local  variations  in  national,  racial 
and  local  customs,  as  well  as  the  demands  of  climate, 
the  muscular  and  nervous  activity  and  so  forth. 

For  practical  general  reference  it  may  be  stated 
that  those  who  have  studied  the  diets  of  school  chil- 
dren are  in  fair  agreement  that  the  daily  ration  of  a 
child  of  ten,  weighing  60  pounds,  should  be  com- 
posed as  follows: 

Protein  60  grams 

Fats    40  grams 

Carbohydrates    ....  250  grams 

Total    350  grams  yielding  1600  Calories. 

16 


244  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

PROPORTION  OF  DAILY  RATION  TO  BE  MET  BY  SCHOOL 
MEAL 

The  fraction  of  the  daily  ration  that  is  to  be 
supplied  by  the  school  meal  will  of  course  depend 
in  large  measure  upon  whether  it  is  breakfast,  din- 
ner, or  a  light  lunch.  In  any  case  school  workers 
are  agreed  that  if  the  school  meal  is  to  be  of  signifi- 
cant value  it  must  supply  deficits  in  the  usual  home 
diets  of  the  children,  and  in  its  general  make-up 
help  to  raise  the  home  standards. 

Practically  this  means  first  that  the  meal  shall 
be  a  substantial  one,  and,  more  important,  that  the 
elements  of  fat  and  protein  have  to  be  emphasized. 
This  is  because  fats  and  protein,  being  largely 
animal  foods,  are  the  most  expensive  kinds,  and  are 
therefore  bought  sparingly  by  the  vast  majority 
of  families.  It  is  possible  to  so  arrange  a  dietary 
that  enough  protein  and  fat  will  be  supplied  for 
comparatively  little  outlay,  but  this  requires  a  more 
accurate  knowledge  of  food  values  than  is  common 
among  housewives. 

The  following  table  shows  how  the  problem  of 
the  distribution  of  foodstuffs  in  the  different  meals 
has  been  worked  out  by  experts  in  connection  with 


FOOD  NEEDS  OF  CHILDREN         245 

the   school    feeding   movement   in   three   different 
countries,  Switzerland,  Germany,  and  England: 

Table  19.  Showing  Amounts  of  Various  Foodstuffs  Con- 
sidered Necessary  at  Different  Meals  for  the  Average 
School  Child  Weighing  27-28  Kilos 

Protein  Fat    Carbohydrates 

Authority  Meal  Grams        Grams       Grams       Calories 

Erisman :  Breakfast    ...  13  10  37  285 

Dinner   40  26  100  794 

Supper  7  5  98  465 

Total    60  41  235  1544 

Rubner :    Breakfast    ...  13  12  37  308 

Dinner   36         .26  104  794 

Supper  15  12  45  348 

Total    64  50  186  1450 

Crowley:  Breakfast    ...  19  20  86  600 

Dinner  29  18  154  894 

Supper    20  19  48  443 

Total    68  57         288         1937 

In  this  table  the  breakfasts  are  suitable  for  a  light 
lunch,  and  on  the  average  are  designed  to  furnish 
about  one-quarter  of  the  day's  fuel  needs,  about  one- 
quarter  of  the  protein  and  a  little  less  than  one- 
third  of  the  fat. 

The  dinners  furnish  on  an  average  over  half  the 
day's  fuel  requirements,  or  827  out  of  a  total  of 
1643  Calories.     Over  half  of  the  total  protein  is 


246  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

supplied  in  the  dinners,  on  an  average,  and  a  little 
less  than  one-half  of  the  fat. 

Ideally,  the  food  of  each  child  should  be  so 
arranged  as  to  give  the  right  proportion  at  the 
proper  intervals  according  to  age,  degree  of  activity, 
etc.  But  for  the  practical  purpose  of  meeting  actual 
needs,  modified  from  the  normal  by  poverty  and 
ignorance,  the  one  meal  at  school  must  be  planned 
to  supply  the  deficit  in  the  day's  total. 

The  difference  in  distribution  of  foodstuffs  in 
these  two  arrangements  is  illustrated  in  the  follow- 
ing table : 

Table  20.  Comparison  of  Distribution  of  Food  Constitu- 
ents and  Values  in  the  Three  Daily  Meals  Under 
Conditions  of  Good  Home  Feeding  with  Distribution 
When  School  Meals  Supplement  Poor  Home  Feeding. 
All  Figures  are  Percentages. 

Protein  Fat  Carbohydrates  Calories 

HS  HS              HS                HS 

Breakfast    ..10      23  10     29           20      23          20     25 

Lunch    40      55  50      48           40      50           46      50 

Supper 50      22  40      23           40      27           34      25 

Total    100    100  100    100  100    100  100    100 

The  actual  amount  of  food  is  the  same,  but  the 
proportions  are  different.  In  this  table  H  indicates 
well  balanced  home  meals  7  and  S  the  school  break- 

TKaup,  Dr.  J.:  Die  Ernahrungsverhaltnisse  der  Volk- 
schulkinder,  p.  53. 


FOOD  NEEDS  OF  CHILDREN         247 

fast  and  school  lunch  supplementing  the  actual 
inadequate  home  meal  at  night.  The  figures  refer 
to  percentages  of  the  day's  total  requirements. 

The  salient  points  with  respect  to  the  food  needs 
of  growing  children  and  their  relation  to  the  prob- 
lem of  school  feeding  may  be  summarized  as 
follows : 

i.  Food  elements  are  of  two  kinds,  tissue  builders  and 
energy  suppliers. 

2.  Tissue  building  food  elements  are  known  as  proteins 
and  energy  supplying  elements  as  carbohydrates  and  fats. 

3.  Food  values  are  measured  by  the  heat  unit  called  the 
Calorie. 

4.  The  consensus  of  opinion  of  authorities  on  children's 
dietaries  is  that  the  ten-year-old  child  weighing  60  pounds 
should  receive  each  day  food  containing  60  grams  of  protein, 
250  grams  of  carbohydrates  and  40  grams  of  fat,  and  having 
a  fuel  value  of  1600  Calories. 

5.  Students  of  the  problems  of  school  feeding  are  agreed 
that  where  school  meals  are  provided  they  should  be  so 
arranged  as  to  supply  deficiencies  found  in  the  home  meals. 

6.  This  generally  means  that  the  school  meal,  if  a  mid- 
day dinner,  shall  supply  at  least  one-half  of  the  daily  require- 
ments in  heat  units,  and  more  than  half  of  the  daily  re- 
quirements in  fats  and  proteins. 

The  way  in  which  these  principles  are  applied  in 
the  actual  construction  of  menus  for  the  school  meal 
will  be  discussed  in  the  chapter  following. 


XII 
School  Menus 

One  day  in  December,  19 10,  the  writer  went  at 
noon  to  the  school  yard  of  a  large  public  school  in 
New  York  City  and  made  notes  on  the  lunches 
the  children  were  eating.  With  the  help  of  a  teacher 
four  lunches  were  selected  as  typical  of  the  kind 
of  lunches  bought  by  the  children  in  stores  and 
pushcarts  near  the  school,  and  the  children  were 
given  pennies  and  asked  to  buy  duplicates  of  what 
they  had  eaten.  The  lunches  bought  in  this  way 
were  as  follows :  a  tiny  frankfurter  and  roll,  costing 
one  cent;  a  Swiss  cheese  sandwich,  costing  two 
cents;  two  small  bananas  and  two  long  licorice 
"  shoestrings,"  costing  two  cents ;  two  frosted  cup 
cakes,  costing  three  cents. 

In  order  to  find  out  the  real  amount  of  food  the 
children  were  getting  for  their  pennies,  the  material 
in  these  lunches  was  weighed  and  analyzed  in  the 
Nutrition  Laboratory  at  Teachers  College. 

Some  interesting  things  were  disclosed  by  this 

experiment.    The  frankfurter,  which  was  a  sort  of 
248 


SCHOOL  MENUS  249 

cerise  in  color,  was  found  to  be  heavily  dyed,  and 
the  frosted  cakes  were  dyed  with  a  bright  yellow 
substance.  Dyeing,  in  itself  a  form  of  adulteration, 
is  usually  a  cloak  to  some  other  adulteration — in 
sausages,  to  conceal  "  filling,"  or  the  use  of  bad 
meat.  In  the  lunch  of  bananas  and  licorice,  that 
bulked  quite  large  and  was  probably  fairly  satisfy- 
ing at  the  time,  the  only  nourishment  was  in  the 
bananas,  for  the  licorice  had  neither  sugar  nor 
glucose,  nor  any  trace  of  a  real  food  substance. 

The  exact  composition  of  the  food  in  the  lunches 
as  revealed  by  analysis  is  shown  in  the  following 
table,  in  which  is  given  the  number  of  grams  of 
protein,  fat  and  carbohydrates  in  each  case: 

Table  ax.    Comparative  Food  Value  of  Lunches  Purchased 
by  Children 

A  BCD 

Frankfurters     Banana  &  Swiss  cheese  Frosted 
and  roll  licorice  bread         cakes 

Protein   5                 .6  12  8 

Fat  6             7  19 

Carbohydrates    9             24.4  46  76 

Total  grams    20             25  65  103 

Total  Calories   110           108  295  507 

Cost    1  c.           I  c.  2  c.         3  c. 

The  real  question  is  how  much  food  value  these 
lunches  yielded  for  each  cent  expended  upon  them, 


250  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

and  this  is  shown  in  the  following  table  in  which 
are  given  the  number  of  Calories  and  the  total  num- 
ber of  grams  of  food  material,  of  protein,  and  of 
fat  purchased  for  one  cent  in  each  case: 

Table  22.    Food  Values  Purchased  by  One  Cent 

A  B  C  D       Average 

Calories no       54       147        169        120 

Grams  of  food  20        12.5      32.5        34.3        25 

Grams  of  protein 5  .3        6.  2.6         3.5 

Grams  of  fat 6        ....        3-5         6.3         3.95 

This  table  shows  in  different  units  just  how  much 
the  children  received  for  each  cent  that  they  spent. 
The  next  question  is  how  much  they  might  have 
received  had  they  spent  the  same  amounts  in  pur- 
chasing carefully  planned  school  lunches  instead  of 
buying  from  the  small  shops  in  the  neighborhood. 
The  tables  presented  show  the  food  values  of  four 
lunches  bought  by  the  children  in  the  small  shops. 
These  consisted  of  one  i-cent  lunch,  two  costing 
2  cents,  and  one  costing  3  cents.  A  similar  analysis 
has  been  made  of  the  food  constituents  of  four 
planned  lunches  such  as  are  daily  being  served  in 
the  schools  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia.  These 
likewise  consisted  of  one  i-cent  lunch,  two  costing 
2  cents  each,  and  one  costing  3  cents. 


SCHOOL  MENUS 


251 


The  contrast  between  the  values  of  the  two  sets 
of  lunches  is  shown  in  the  following  diagram  in 
which  the  first  upright  column  shows  the  average 

School 
Lunch 


Unplanned 
Lunch 


17A 


J1T3 


3-9 

3A 


VI.  Average  purchasing  power  of  one  cent  spent  for  unplanned  lunch, 
contrasted  with  purchasing  power  if  spent  for  school  lunch.  Carbohydrates 
in  outline;  fats  in  horizontal  lining;  protein  in  solid  black. 

purchasing  power  of  one  cent  when  the  food  is 
bought  at  the  small  shops,  and  the  second  column 
what  one  cent  purchases  on  the  average  when  the 
food  is  furnished  with  planned  lunches. 


252  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

The  diagram  shows  that  the  child  who  patronizes 
the  school  lunch  buys  on  the  average  44  grams  of 
food  material  for  each  cent,  whereas  the  one  who 
visits  the  small  shop  gets  only  25  grams.  The  con- 
trast is  no  less  striking  when  the  units  of  food  values 
in  Calories  are  computed.  The  average  number  of 
Calories  purchased  for  one  cent  at  the  small  shops 
is  only  118,  whereas  that  bought  by  the  same 
amount  spent  in  the  school  lunch  room  is  200 
Calories.  The  child  who  is  able  to  purchase  a 
planned  lunch  at  cost  price  gets  more  protein  for 
his  money,  more  fats  and  more  carbohydrates.  He 
gets  nearly  twice  as  much  food  and  gets  it  unadul- 
terated. 

Studies  of  the  home  diets  of  children,  particularly 
those  who  are  underfed,  have  shown  that  they  are 
deficient  in  protein  and  fat,  and  this  is  likely  to 
happen  in  any  case  where  the  food  is  provided  by 
people  ignorant  and  careless  of  the  right  food  for 
children.  The  reason  is  that  meat,  fish,  milk,  eggs, 
oils,  etc.,  are  everywhere  more  expensive  than  bread, 
coffee,  and  canned  foods,  and  that  naturally  these 
are  either  supplied  in  small  quantities  or  not  at  all, 
and  no  attempt  is  made  to  make  up  the  deficit  by 
the  use  of  less  expensive  sources  of  protein  and  fat. 


SCHOOL  MENUS  258 

THE  NEED :      WELL  CONSTRUCTED  AND  ECONOMICAL 
MENUS 

"The  two  main  problems  of  constructing  menus 
for  a  school  meal  are,  first,  how  to  assure  the  chil- 
dren a  lunch  that  shall  be  satisfying  to  the  appetite, 
yield  a  fair  proportion  of  the  day's  whole  ration, 
and  make  up  for  the  probable  deficiencies  in  the 
children's  home  diets;  and  second,  how  all  this  is  to 
be  done,  while  keeping  the  whole  cost  of  food,  prep- 
aration and  service  within  the  ability  of  the  school 
children  to  pay. 

These  two  problems  have  been  solved  so  success- 
fully in  Bradford,  England,  that  the  experience  there 
may  well  stand  as  model  for  other  places. 

When  the  school  authorities  in  Bradford  began 
to  provide  meals  in  accordance  with  the  provisions 
in  the  National  Education  Act  of  1906  1  the  Direc- 
tor of  Medical  Inspection,  Dr.  Ralph  Crowley,  and 
the  Superintendent  of  Domestic  Science,  Miss 
Cuff,  with  infinite  care  and  study  made  out  a  set  of 
menus  to  meet  the  special  needs  of  the  children  in 
their  schools. 

The  following  specimen  menus,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  supper,  are  examples  of  the  sort  of  food 

xSee  p.  43ff„  this  text. 


254 


SCHOOL  FEEDING 


Dr.  Crowley  considered  necessary  for  the  children 
of  Bradford  if  they  were  to  grow  and  play  and 
work  in  the  best  way : 

BREAKFAST 

Oatmeal  Porridge,  Treacle,  Milk  and  Bread  and  Butter 

Material  Quantity  Protein  Pat 

(grains)  (grains) 

Oatmeal    i     oz.  72  31 

Treacle    1     oz. 

Milk   y2  oz.  140  176 

Bread   2     oz.  80  12 

Margarine    . . . .     %  oz.  ...  92 

Total  Calories,  600.  292  (18.9 grams) 311  (20.1  grams) 

Wholesale  cost,  2.204  cents. 
Retail  cost,  2.5  cents. 

DINNER   NO.    XI 

Cottage    Pie    (Meat   with    Crust),   Green   Peas   and   Gravy; 
Stewed  Fruit 

Material  Quantity  Protein  Fat 

(grains)  (grains) 

Beef   2     oz.  162  17 

Potato    3     oz.  24  1 

Onion    1     oz.  6  1 

Flour    i$4  oz.  87  7 

Margarine   ..  ^  oz.  3  279 

Peas    V/i  oz.  162  6 

Bread il/2  oz.  60  9 

Fruit   3     oz.  4 

Sugar    H  oz. 

Total  Calories,  894.  508  (33  grams)  320  (21  grams) 

Wholesale  cost,  3.0  cents. 
Retail  cost,  4.27  cents. 


SCHOOL  MENUS  255 

TEA 

Bread  and  Margarine,  Tea  with  Milk 

Material  Quantity  Protein  Fat 

(grains)  (grains) 

Bread  6     oz.  240  36 

Margarine  ..     y2oz.  2  184 

Milk    4     oz.  56  70 

Tea 1/10  oz. 

298  ( 19.3  grams)  290  ( 18.8  grams) 
Total  Calories,  443. 
Wholesale  cost,  2.07  cents. 
Retail  cost,  2.17  cents. 

(In  Appendix  E  will  be  found  the  menus  of  all  the  seven- 
teen dinners.) 

Breakfast. — The  breakfast  menu  was  never  varied 
in  practice  after  it  proved  on  trial  to  be  more  satis- 
factory than  any  other  combination.  The  oatmeal, 
milk  and  bread  furnish  19  grams  of  protein,  and 
the  oatmeal,  milk,  bread  and  margarine  furnish  20 
grams  of  fat,  while  the  starch  and  sugar  in  the 
treacle  and  bread  form  the  carbohydrates.  The 
breakfast  yielding  a  total  of  600  Calories  is  designed 
to  furnish  between  one-quarter  and  one-third  of  the 
day's  ration. 

Supper. — The  supper  is  made  out,  not  like  the 
others  on  the  basis  of  the  child's  real  needs  to  be 


256  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

met  in  a  school  meal,  but  on  the  basis  of  what  inves- 
tigation showed  was  the  children's  most  usual  home 
supper.  Dr.  Crowley  says  that  the  protein  and  fat 
estimates  are  probably  a  trifle  higher  than  is  actually 
the  case,  while  the  carbohydrates  may  be  too  low. 

Dinners. — There  are  in  all  17  dinner  menus, 
which  are  served  in  rotation,  providing  considerable 
variety.  There  are  among  them  four  different  kinds 
of  soup  and  boiled  puddings.  Six  are  "  vegetarian  " 
dinners  consisting  mostly  of  savory  vegetable  stews 
with  milk  pudding  or  wholemeal  cake.  The  most 
elaborate  dinner  is  fish  and  potato  pie,  green  peas 
and  lemon  sauce,  blancmange  and  jam.  This  is  an 
example  of  the  meals  served  on  Fridays. 

The  protein  in  the  dinners  is  provided  in  meat, 
milk  or  beans  and  peas.  The  greater  part  of  the 
fat  is  from  meat  or  margarine,  though  in  a  few  cases 
a  vegetable  fat,  called  "  nutter,"  is  used. 

In  the  menu  given  above,  there  are  33  grams  of 
protein  and  21  grams  of  fat,  and  both  these  are 
slightly  higher  than  the  average  in  all  the  dinners, 
which  are:  29  grams  protein  and  18  grams  fat. 
The  large  amount  of  protein  is  due  to  the  use  of 
peas  and  meat  together. 


SCHOOL  MENUS  257 

The  dinner  menus  are  arranged  so  that  the  pro- 
tein never  falls  below  24  grams  and  is  more  often 
29  grams  or  a  little  over.  The  other  component 
parts  vary  greatly  in  amount  in  the  different  menus, 
but  this  is  less  important  than  a  variation  in  the 
amount  of  protein  daily,  for  the  reason  that  both 
fat  arid  carbohydrates  may  be  stored  in  the  body 
for  future  use,  whereas  any  excess  of  protein  over 
what  is  needed  at  the  time  for  tissue  building  is 
eliminated  as  soon  as  possible.  This  means  that  the 
supply  has  to  be  kept  up,  though  it  need  not  be 
large. 

The  Bradford  kitchens  are  equipped  to  serve  ten 
thousand  meals  a  day  and  it  is  probable  that  no 
such  careful  plan  has  ever  been  made  for  the  feed- 
ing of  large  numbers  of  children  that  has  worked 
out  so  practically.  There  are  several  important 
principles  illustrated  by  the  Bradford  regimen  that 
must  be  taken  into  account  in  any  similar  under- 
taking.   They  are  as  follows: 

1.  The  proper  amount  and  proportion  of  foodstuffs  are 
provided  each  day.  The  protein  and  fat  elements  are  em- 
phasized. 

2.  There  is  great  variety  in  the  kind  of  foods  in  the 
dinners,  where  variety  is  more  essential  than  at  other  meals. 

17 


258  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

3.  The  foods  are  simple,  easily  digested,  are  prepared 
palatably,  and  served  daintily '  and  are  valuable  in  cultivating 
the  taste  for  the  right  sorts  of  food. 

4.  Finally  there  is  the  question  of  economy, — the  meals 
are  very  cheap.  The  wholesale  rate  per  child  never  exceeds 
three  cents,  for  a  dinner,  while  the  breakfast  costs  in  all 
two  cents. 

Menus  in  Paris  Cantines.z — In  the  Paris  cantines, 
though  there  is  no  plan  like  Bradford's,  the  meals 
are  hearty,  well  prepared  and  well  served,  and  afford 
considerable  variety.  In  schools  where  there  are 
very  small  children  they  are  given  different  food 
from  the  rest  and  have,  as  a  rule,  milk  in  some  form, 
and  their  meat  is  cut  into  small  pieces. 

The  menus  in  each  district 3  are  made  out  once 
a  month  and  a  printed  copy  hung  up  on  the  kitchen 
wall  at  each  cantine.  Following  is  a  specimen  of 
a  two  weeks'  plan  for  one  school : 

I.   Monday:   Beef  broth  and  bread.    Vermicelli,  cooked  in 
milk,  with  hashed  beef. 
Tuesday:    Macaroni  and  veal. 
Wednesday:    Beef  stew,  potatoes. 
Thursday:    Macaroni,  sardines. 
Friday:  Veal,  white  beans. 
Saturday:    Cabbage  soup,  sausages. 

*  See  p.  48ff.,  this  text.  ■  See  p.  77K-,  this  text. 


SCHOOL  MENUS  259 

2.  Monday:  Vegetable  soup,  red  beans,  roast  beef.  Milk 
porridge,  bread,  red  beans,  roast  beef. 

Tuesday:   Beef  stew,  potatoes. 

Wednesday:  Veal  stew,  lentils.  Vermicelli  in  milk, 
veal  stew,  lentils. 

Thursday:    Rice  cooked  in  oil  and  cheese. 

Friday:    Beef  stew,  white  beans. 

Saturday :  Potato  puree,  sausages. 

Some  of  the  Paris  schools  serve  more  elaborate 
meals,  giving  soup,  meat  and  vegetables  and  a  little 
dessert.  It  is  quite  customary,  however,  for  children 
to  bring  their  own  desserts,  as  well  as  their  own 
bread. 

Local  Mentis  in  New  York. — In  Bradford  or 
Paris  there  is  no  special  difficulty  in  getting  dishes 
that  all  the  children  will  eat,  as  they  are  almost  all 
of  the  same  nationality  and  are  used  to  the  same 
general  foods.  In  a  city  like  New  York,  with  its 
heterogeneous  population,  it  would  be  impossible 
to  give  the  same  food  to  the  children  of  different 
sections.  There  are  religious  as  well  as  national 
customs  that  must  not  be  violated.  In  a  school 
where  there  are  large  numbers  of  Catholics,  meat 
must  not  be  served  on  Fridays  and  other  fast  days. 
In  Jewish  districts  the  laws  of  Kosher  must  be 
observed.    At  the  same  time,  a  taste  for  new  kinds 


260  SCHOOL  FEEDING 

of  food  must  be  cultivated,  and  elements  wanting  in 
the  home  meals  must  be  supplied. 

Following  are  specimen  menus  made  out  for  an 
Italian  and  an  Irish- American  district: 

Rice  and  beans  with  tomato.  Clam  chowder. 

Polenta — cornmeal  with  cheese,  Samp. 

tomato,  oil.  Macaroni  soup. 

Menestra — vegetables  stewed  Baked  beans. 

in   oil.  Boiled  rice. 

Lima  beans  and  postum.  Noodle  soup. 

Macaroni,  cheese,   tomato.  Vegetable  soup. 

Rice,  tomato  and  cheese.  Rice  pudding  and  cocoa. 

Potato  soup  and  fish.  Cocoa  and  prunes. 

Cheese  sandwich  and  cocoa.  Apple  sauce  and  crackers. 

Pea  soup.  Barley  soup. 

These  menus  which  are  always  served  with  bread 
contain  on  an  average  30  grams  of  protein,  13 
grams  of  fat,  and  130  grams  of  carbohydrates,  and 
yield  about  750  Calories.  This  equals  one-third  to 
one-half  of  what  Dr.  Wile,  who  superintends  the 
dietary  end  of  the  lunches,  considers  necessary  for 
the  day's  food  supply  of  the  children  in  the  schools. 


ANNOTATED  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


ON 


SCHOOL  FEEDING 


ARRANGED  ACCORDING  TO  TOPICS 


I.  Belgium. 
II.  Food  Values,  Dietaries,  Etc. 

III.  France.  * 

IV.  Germany. 

V.  Great  Britain. 
VI.  Italy. 
VII.  Malnutrition. 
VIII.  Periodicals. 
IX.  Switzerland. 
X.  United  States. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


I.  Belgium 

Bruxelles,  Julien  Baertsoen  :  College  au  conseil  communal. 
Enquete  sur  l'habillement,  la  nourriture  et  le  logement 
des  eleves  des  ecoles  communales.  Rapport,  1896,  68 
pages. 

Montgomery,  Jessie  Douglas:  School  Hygiene  in  Brussels. 
In  London.  Board  of  Education.  Special  reports  on 
educational  subjects.  London,  Wyman  &  Sons,  1898, 
pp.  689-787. 

Synge,  M.  B.,  and  May,  M.  G. :  Provision  Made  for  Children 
under  Compulsory  School  Age  in  Belgium,  France,  Ger- 
many, and  Switzerland.  Special  Reports  on  Educational 
Subjects,  vol.  22,  1909.  Board  of  Education,  Great 
Britain  (Cd.  4477) »  price  is.  3d. 

(Children's  Homes,  etc.,  for  children  of  working 
mothers;  food  carefully  attended  to;  paid  for  by 
parents  when  possible.) 

II.  Food  Values,  Dietaries,  etc. 

Atwater,  Wilbur  Olin,  and  Bryant,  A.  P.:  The  Chemical 
Composition  of  American  Food  Materials.  Washington, 
Government  Printing  Office,  1006.  Rev.  ed.,  87  pp.  (U. 
S.  Office  of  Experiment  Stations.    Bulletin  No.  28.) 

Atwater,  W.  O.,  Ph.D.  (Special  Agent  in  Charge  of  Nu- 
trition Investigations,  Office  of  Experiment  Station,  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Agriculture.)  :    Principles  of  Nutrition  and 

263 


264  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Nutritive  Value  of  Food.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  142 
(Corrected  to  April  5,  1006).  Washington,  Government 
Printing  Office. 

(Popular  introduction  to  the  study  of  food  values, 
standards  used  being  based  on  observation  of  what  people 
do  eat,  not  on  experimental   work.) 

Auden,  George  A.,  M.D.  (Med.  Sup.  Birmingham  Ed. 
Com.)  :  The  Feeding  of  Necessitous  School  Children. 
In  the  Medical  Officer,  vol.  1,  No.  30,  1009,  p.  767  ff. 
London,   Whitefriars  Street,   Fleet  Street,   E.   C. 

(Food  values  of  breakfasts  in  Birmingham  and  other 
places.) 

Berry,  Elmer:  The  Effects  of  a  High  and  Low  Protein 
Diet  on  Physical  Efficiency.  Amer.  Phys.  Ed.  Rev.  XIV, 
1909,  p.  288  ff. 

(Account  of  experiment  in  low  protein  diet  for 
athletes  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  Y.  M.  C.  A.) 

Bryant,  Louise  Stevens:  (a)  Some  Recent  Experimental 
Work  on  Children's  Food  Needs.  The  Dietetic  and 
Hygienic  Gazette,  June,  191 1. 

(An  account  of  work  on  children's  diets  analogous  to 
Chittenden's  work  on  that  of  adults.  Comparative  study 
of  fifteen  standard  dietaries.     Four  tables.) 

(b)  Nutrition  and  Growth  in  the  Special  Class  for  Back- 
ward Children,  by  Lightner  Witmer.  The  Psychological 
Clinic  Press,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1912. 

(An  account  of  six  weeks'  feeding  of  a  class  of 
eighteen  backward  children,  giving  dietaries,  menus, 
food  values,  accounts  of  home  feeding,  results  on  weight, 
height,  haemoglobin,  etc.) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  265 

Camerer,  Wilhelm:  Der  Stoffwechsel  des  Kindes  (von  der 
Geburt  bis  ura  Beendigung  des  Wachstums).  Tubingen, 
1896.     Laupp. 

(Record  of  observational  work  on  his  own  children's 
diets.) 

Chittenden,  Russell  H. :  The  Nutrition  of  Man.  New 
York.    Frederick  A.  Stokes  Co.,  1907.     301  pp. 

(Most  extensive  account  that  has  appeared  of  results 
and  conclusions  following  experimental  work  on  the 
true  food  needs  of  the  body.  Technical,  but  with  some 
matter  on  practical  applications.  No  reference  to  chil- 
dren's diets.) 

Corbett,  Florence  R. :  Dietaries  for  Charitable  Institutions. 
State  Board  of  Charities,  New  York,  1906. 

Dukes,  C. :  The  Essentials  of  School  Diet.  London,  1899, 
211  pp. 

Food  Values,  Practical  Methods  in  Diet  Calculations. 
Bulletin  of  the  American  School  of  Home  Economics, 
March,  1909,  Series  I,  No.  13.  Chicago,  111.,  606  W. 
69th  Street. 

(An  account  of  Prof.  Irving  Fisher's  graphic  method 
of  calculating  food  values  by  the  hundred  Calories  portion, 
and  the  use  of  his  graphic  chart  and  mechanical  diet 
indicator.  Valuable  for  the  practical  worker  in  diets. 
Bibliography.) 

Gautier,  Armand:  Diet  and  Dietetics.  Edited  and  trans- 
lated from  the  French  by  A.  J.  Rice  Oreley.  Philadel- 
phia.   J.  B.  Lippincott.    1906. 

(Takes  up  children's  diets,  especially  relation  between 
growth  and  changing  needs.) 


266  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Gibbs,  Winifred  Stuart:    Popular  Education  in  Dietetics. 
In  The  Journal  of  Home  Economics,  April,  1910. 
(An  account  of  the  work  of  a  "visiting  dietitian.") 

Hall,  Winfield  S. :  Nutrition  and  Dietetics.  New  York  and 
London.    D.  Appleton  &  Co.    1910. 

(General  treatment.  Short  section  on  "  rations  varied 
by  sex  and  age.") 

Hendrick,  Burton  J.:  Some  Modern  Ideas  on  Food.  In 
McClure's  Magazine,  Vol.  xxxiv,  April,  1910,  p.  653  ff. 
New  York. 

(A  review  in  non-technical  terms  of  the  most  recent 
scientific  observations  and  experiments  with  especial 
reference  to  the  "  low-protein  diet "  and  "  Fletcherism." 
Accurate  and  interesting.) 

Heubner:  Eine  Betrachtung  iiber  die  Ernahrung  des 
Kindes  jenseits  des  Sauglingsalters.  Jacobi's  Festchrift, 
p.  290. 

Hunt,  Caroline  L.:  The  Daily  Meals  of  School  Children. 
Washington,  Government  Printing  Office,  1909. 

(Main  emphasis  on  food  values  and  dietaries  for 
children.     Bibliography  and  index.) 

Hutchinson,  Robert:  (a)  Food  and  the  Principles  of  Die- 
tetics.   London,  Arnold.    1906. 

(General  text-book  on  Nutrition.  Not  written  es- 
pecially for  the  trained  reader.  Considerable  matter  on 
children's  diets.) 

(b)  Improper  Feeding  of  Cardiff  Children.  (Brit.  Med. 
Jour.,  1907,  No.  2404,  pp.  226,  227.) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  267 

Kellogg,  J.,  M.D.:  The  Battle  Creek  Sanitarium  Diet  List. 
Modern  Medicine  Publishing  Company,  Ltd.,  Battle 
Creek,  Michigan,  1909. 

(Standard  dietaries  for  different  ages  made  out  in 
accordance  with  the  low-protein  diet  principles.  Tables 
of  normal  weights  and  heights.) 

Langworthy,  C.  F.:  Food  and  Diet  in  the  United  States. 
Reprint  from  Year  Book  of  Department  of  Agriculture 
for  1907.    Washington,  Government  Printing  Office. 

(Account  of  various  dietary  standards,  with  general 
information  about  food  and  food  values  that  may  be  of 
practical  use.  The  standards  followed  are  the  older  ones 
of  Voit  and  Atwater,  no  account  being  taken  of  the 
more  recent  results  of  definite  experimental  work.) 

Leach,  Albert  E. :  Food  Inspection  and  Food  Analysis. 
John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York,  1909. 

Legendre,  P.:  The  Nourishment  of  Youths  of  Both  Sexes 
in  the  Family  and  in  Educational  Institutions.  (Rev.  Soc. 
Sci.  Hyg.  Aliment,  3  (Paris,  1906),  No.  3,  pp.  450-468.) 

Locke,  Edwin  A.,  M.D. :  A  Report  of  Dietary  Studies  made 
at  the  Franklin  Park  Hospital  School  for  Tubercular 
Children  (Boston,  Mass.).  Proceedings  of  the  Sixth 
Cong.  Amer.  School  Hygiene  Assoc,  Springfield,  Mass., 
1912. 

(Account  of  food  values  of  daily  home  and  school 
meals  of  191  children,  giving  cost  of  school  meals, 
amount  of  protein  ingested,  etc.  A  careful  and  useful 
piece  of  work.) 


368  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Lungwitz,  Hans:  Stoffwechselversuche  iiber  den  Eiweissbe- 
darf  des  Kindes.  Halle  a  S.,  Carl  Marhold.  1908.  (82  pp.) 
(This  is  a  summary  of  all  the  work,  observational 
and  experimental,  on  the  protein  needs  of  children.  It 
deals  particularly  with  Siegert's  work  and  corroborative 
experiments  made  by  the  author.  It  is  the  only  work 
on  children's  true  protein  needs  at  all  comparable  to  Dr. 
Chittenden's  work  on  adults.  Tables.  Bibliography. 
The  bibliography  is  of  especial  interest  to  the  scientific 
student  of  metabolism  and  the  pathology  and  therapy  of 
nutrition.) 

Maurel,  E. :  Rapport  sur  la  ration  d'entretien  aux  divers 
ages.  In  Revue  d'Hygiene  Alimentaire.  Ill,  1906.  pp. 
763*854.  Paris.  Masson  et  Cie.  120  Boulevard  Saint- 
Germain.    Price  2  francs. 

(A  complete  outline  of  all  the  food  needs  from  infancy 
to  old  age,  including  considerations  of  weight,  height, 
cutaneous  surface,  lung  activity,  climate,  etc.  Tables 
showing  relation  of  growth  to  nutrition,  typical  regimens 
for  every  period  of  life.  Gear  style,  concrete  treatment, 
with  a  practical  point  of  view  throughout.  The  estimates 
given  have  been  submitted  to  years  of  test  in  general 
practice.) 

Milner,  Robert  Denniston:  The  Cost  of  Food  as  Related 
to  its  Nutritive  Value.  In  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 
Year  Book,  1902.    Washington,  1903.    pp.  387-406. 

Muller,  Erich:  Stoffwechselversuche  an  32  Kindern  im 
3  bis  6  Lebensjahre  mit  Berikksichtigung  des  Kraft  - 
wechsels  auf  Grund  direkter  calorimetrischer  Bestim- 
mungen.  In  Biochemische  Zeitschrift.  V.  1907.  (2,  3, 
4,  Heft.)  pp.  I43"303.    Berlin.    Julius  Springer. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  269 

(Observational  merely;  no  experimental  data,  as  with 
Siegert  and  Lungwitz.  The  children  under  observation 
were  from  2  to  6  years  old,  in  weight  from  9  to  17  kilos. 
Bibliography.  A  summary  table  of  the  material  in  this 
article  is  given  in  Lungwitz,  pp.  22.) 

Richards,  Ellen  Henrietta  :  (a)  First  Lessons  in  Food  and 
Diet.    Boston,  Whitcomb  &  Barrows,  1894.    52  pp. 

(b)  Plain  Words  about  Food.  The  Rumford  Kitchen  Leaf- 
lets, 1899.  Boston,  Rockwell  and  Churchill  Press,  1809. 
176  pp.,   10  plates,   diagram. 

Richards,  Ellen  Henrietta,  and  Woodman,  Alpheus  C : 
Air,  Water  and  Food  (from  a  Sanitary  Standpoint). 
John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York,  1909. 

Rubner,  Max,  M.D. :  (a)  Gesetze  des  Energieverbrauchs  bei 
der  Ernahrung,  1902. 

(b)  Das  Problem  der  Lebensdauer  and  seine  Beziehungen  zu 
Wachstum  and  Ernahrung,  Munich  und  Berlin.  R. 
Oldenbourg,  1908,  208  pp. 

(c)  Kraft  und  Stoff  im  Haushalt  der  Natur.  Akad.  Verlags- 
gesellschaft.  m.  b.  H.    Leipsig,  1909. 

(A  popular,  yet  philosophical  treatise  on  the  processes 
of  nutrition.  A  summary  of  Rubner's  work  on  Nu- 
trition.) 

(d)  Volksernahrungsfragen.  Leipsig.  Verlagsgesellschaft  m. 
b.  H.    1908. 

(1.  The  minimum  requirement  of  protein.  The  prac- 
tical issues  involved  in  the  "low  protein"  standard  of 
nutrition.  A  critical  study  of  the  complex  nature  of 
protein  metabolism.  2.  The  diet  of  the  poor.  Influence 
of  poverty  on  nutrition.) 


270  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

(e)  Die  Ernahrungsverhaltnisse  der  Volkschulkinder.  (Re- 
port of  address  at  Congress  on  School  Feeding  in 
Darmstadt,  May,  1909.)  Pub.  in  Schriften  der  Zentral- 
stelle  fur  Volkswohlfahrt.  Heft  4  der  neuen  Folge  der 
Schriften  der  Zentralstelle  fur  Arbeiter-Wohlfahrtein- 
richtungen.     Berlin.     Carl  Heymanns.     1009.     p.  132  ff. 

Schroeder:  Uber  die  Ernahrung  8-15  Jahriger  Kinder. 
Archiv  fur  Hygiene,  IV  39,  1886. 

Sherman,  Henry  G:  Chemistry  of  Food  and  Nutrition. 
New  York,  Macmillan  Co.,  191 1. 

(An  authoritative  treatment  in  non-technical  language, 
with  sections  on  children's  diets.) 

(Further  experimental  work  on  children's  diets.) 

Siegert,  F.,  M.D.:  (a)  Der  Nahrungsbedarf  des  Kindes  jen- 
seits  des  Ersten  Lebensjahres.  (Koln.)  (Verhandlungen 
der  Gesellschaft  fur  Kinderheilkunde.  1906.  Stuttgart.) 
J.  F.  Bergmann.    Wiesbaden.    1907. 

(Account    of    first    experimental    work    on    children's 
food  needs.) 

(b)  Der  Eiweissbedarf  des  Kindes.  Arch.  f.  Exper.  Path- 
ologie  und  Pharm.     1908.     Supplt.  Bd.,  pp.  4897-495. 

Simple  Dishes  for  Children  of  School  Age.  Boston  Cooking 
School  Magazine,  13  :  145,  Oct.,  1908. 

Smedley,  E.,  Milner,  R.  D.,  Knight,  Pratt,  and  Lang- 
worthy:  Dietary  Studies  in  Public  Institutions.  Wash- 
ington, Government  Printing  Office,  1910,  98  pp. 

Stewart,  Gwendolyn:  Diet  in  Relation  to  Growth.  Jour. 
Home  Economics,  Feb.,  191 1,  pp.  81-86. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  271 

Sutherland,  G.  A. :  A  System  of  Diet  and  Dietaries,  London, 
1908. 

(Summary  and  discussion  of  recent  clinical  and  other 
work  on  dietaries;  all  ages,  from  infancy  to  end  of 
school  life.) 

Voelcker,  A.  F. :  Some  Common  Errors  in  the  Diet  and 
General  Hygiene  of  Children.  (Brit.  Med.  Jour.,  1907, 
No.  2404,  pp.  181-185. 

Watson,  C. :  A  Plea  for  the  Use  of  Oatmeal  in  the  Dietary 
of  Children.  Brit.  Med.  Jour.,  1907,  No.  2417,  pp.  985, 
986,  Figs.  2. 

Witmer,  Lightner,  Ph.D.:  The  Special  Gass  for  Backward 
Children.  The  Psychological  Clinic  Press,  Phila.,  Pa. 
1911. 

(Contains  chapter  on  Nutrition  and  Growth.  See 
reference  under  Bryant.) 

III.  France 

Butte,  L.:  (a)  Les  cantines  scolaires.  U  hygiene  scolaire, 
189,  1910.  (b)  L'education  physique.  La  medecine 
scolaire,  4,  51   (1911). 

Courgey,  Dr.:  Cantines  Scolaires.  La  Medicine  Scolaire. 
June  10,  1908,  pp.  85-92,  Paris.  Librairie  Ch.  Delagrave. 
15  Rue  Soufflot. 

(Short  history  of  the  Paris  cantines,  and  an  estimate 
of  their  value  by  a  medical  inspector.) 

Elliott,  Charles  Alfred:  Cantines  Scolaires  of  Paris. 
Nineteenth   century,   59:834-41,   May,   1906. 

(Case  against  them.  Their  expense  used  as  argument 
against  their  adoption  by  England.) 


272  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Kleine,  Marcel:  The  Cantines  Scolaires  of  Paris.  (Inter- 
national Congress  for  the  Welfare  and  Protection  of 
Children.  Special  conference,  1906.)  Report  of  the 
proceedings.  Westminster.  Published  for  the  Com- 
mittee by  P.  S.  King  &  Son,  pp.  65-70.  Discussion, 
pp.  70-82. 

(History  and  description.) 

Lancet  Reports  :  The  Free  Feeding  of  School  Children.  A 
reprint  of  the  reports  by  the  Special  Sanitary  Commis- 
sioner of  the  Lancet  on  the  action  taken  by  the 
municipalities  with  regard  to  the  provision  of  meals  for 
the  children  attending  the  elementary  schools  of  Paris, 
Brussels,  Milan,  Vercelli,  San  Remo,  Mentone,  Nice, 
Cannes,  Toulon,  and  Marseilles.  Second  edition,  1907. 
The  Offices  of  The  Lancet,  423,  424  Strand,  London, 
W.  C     Price  3d. 

(Those  interested  in  the  important  questions  of  the 
popular  and  political  reactions  to  the  introduction  of 
meals  into  the  schools  will  find  these  reports  most  valu- 
able. The  political  and  financial  dangers  and  complica- 
tions as  well  as  their  final  solution  are  given  in  detail 
for  each  place.) 

Laurentie,  Franqois:  La  Protection  de  l'Enfance.  Rheims. 
(U Action  Populaire.) 

(Summary  of  French  movements  toward  child  wel- 
fare.) 

Lavergne,  F.:  (a)  (Chef  du  Secretariat  de  la  Direction  de 
I'Enseignement.)  Les  ficoles  et  les  CEuvres  Municipals 
D'Enseignement.  1871-1900.  (Ville  de  Paris.)  447  PP- 
Paris  Societe  Anonyme  de  Publications  Periodiques.  P. 
Mouillot,  Imprimeur.    13  Quai  Voltaire. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  273 

(Complete,  non-official  discussion  of  the  entire  public 
educational  system  of  Paris,  from  the  maternal  schools 
to  the  higher,  professional  colleges,  including  night 
schools,  art  and  industrial  work,  and  central  administra- 
tion, and  finally  the  extra-academic  activities,  such  as 
the  cantines,  medical  inspection,  excursions,  vacation 
colonies,  military  classes,  student  insurance.  The  book 
is  of  particular  value  because  of  the  general  difficulty 
of  obtaining  first-hand  information  about  French  institu- 
tions. The  administration  of  the  cantines  is  treated  at 
some  length.) 
(fc)  Organisation  des  Cantines  Scolaires  a  Paris.  A  report 
in  manuscript  manifold  issued  by  the  "  Direction  de  l'En- 
seignement  primaire  3me  Bureau.  Prefecture  du  departe- 
ment  de  la  Seine." 

(An  account  of  the  origin  and  history  of  the  cantines 
in  Paris  from  1879  to  1903,  with  a  detailed  description 
of  their  conduct  in  the  18th  district,  regarded  as  the 
model  in  this  respect.) 

IV.  Germany 

Albu,  A:  Der  Anteil  der  Schule  an  den  Storungen  der 
Entwicklung  und  Ernahrung  der  Kinder.  Reprinted 
from  Zeitschr.  f.  pad.  Psych.,  Path.  u.  Hygiene. 

Fischer:  Einrichtungen  fur  die  Speisung  armer  Volkschul- 
kinder  in  den  Stadten  Dresden,  Prag,  Wien,  Niirnberg, 
usw.    Berlin,  1908. 

Kaup,  Dr.,  Med.  I.:    (a)    (Zentralstelle  fur  Volkswohlfahrt, 

Berlin.)     Schulspeisung  armer  Kinder.     (Referat  auf  der 

Konferenz    der   Deutschen   Zentrale   fur   Jugendfiirsorge 

in  Berlin.     Am.  31   Mai   1907.)     25  pp.   Sonderabdruck 

18 


274  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

aus  der  Zeitschrift  der  Zentralstelle  u  Concordia,"  No.  24, 
vom  15  Dec,  1907.  Carl  Heymanns,  Berlin  W.  8, 
Mauerstrasse  43/44. 

(This  was  the  first  time  the  school  feeding  problem 
in  Germany  had  been  considered  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  trained  dietitian.  The  first  part  of  the  book  con- 
siders the  food  needs  of  the  school  child  and  includes 
comparative  tables  of  growth.  The  second  part  deals 
with  organizations  for  school  feeding  in  Germany,  but 
this  material  is  superseded  and  included  in  Kaup's  later 
book.     See  below.) 

(b)  Die  Ernahrungsverhaltnisse  der  Volkschulkinder.  (Vor- 
bericht  und  Verhandlungen  der  3  Konferenz  der  Zentral- 
stelle fiir  Volkswohlfahrt.  1909.  Darmstadt.)  Berlin. 
Carl  Heymanns  Verlag.     1909.     170  pp.     22  tables. 

(This  is  an  account  of  the  most  extensive  investigation 
of  School  Feeding  that  has  ever  been  made  in  any 
country.  It  covers  the  reports  of  school  feeding  or- 
ganizations in  all  towns  of  10,000  and  over  in  the  German 
Empire ;  these  are  analyzed  and  the  results  tabulated ; 
an  account  of  the  daily  food  of  about  500,000  school 
children;  the  report  of  a  special  examination  of  the 
nutritional  conditions  of  170,000  children.  The  causes 
and  effects  of  malnutrition  are  discussed  at  length. 
Plans  and  outlines  for  future  work,  the  correlated  social 
reforms,  etc.,  are  given.  Critical  analysis  of  the  food 
values  in  the  meals  of  some  25  towns.) 

(c)  Ernahrung  und  Lebenskraft  der  landlichen  Bevolke- 
rung.     Schr.  d.  Z.  f.  V.  Heft  6  N.  F. 

Lemberg,  Hedwig:  Schulspeisung  in  Wien.  Reprinted  from 
Nos.  5  and  6,  II  Jahr.  der  Zeitschr.  fiir  Kinderschutz  und 
Jugendfursorge.    Vienna,  1910. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  275 

Munsterberg:  Schulspeisung.  Handbuch  d.  St.  Art.  Kinder- 
fursorge.    Berlin. 

Riegel,  Maria:    Schulspeisung  in  Mannheim,  1909. 

Rubner,  Dr.  Max:  Leitsatze  betreffend  die  Ernahrungs- 
verhaltnisse  der  Volkschulkinder.  In  Internationales 
Archiv  fur  Schulhygiene.  Vol.  VI,  No.  3,  Mai  1910, 
PP.  357-364. 

(Proposals  in  regard  to  permanently  bettering  the 
nutrition  of  school  children,  by  meals  in  school,  but 
more  especially  by  the  installation  of  Day  Homes,  for 
children  below  as  well  as  of  school  age,  with  working 
mothers;  by  widespread  provision  for*  sick  and  unem- 
ployed, such  as  insurance,  pensions,  etc.  These  pro- 
posals are  summarized  in  French  and  English  as  well  as 
German.) 

Seydel:  (Stadtrat,  Charlottenburg) :  Die  Mittagsspeisung 
von  Schulkindern  in  Charlottenburg  in  Archiv  fur  Volks- 
wohlfahrt,  II,  4,  Jan.,  1909,  pp.  227-231. 

(Charlottenburg  has  one  of  the  best  systems  in  Ger- 
many. It  corresponds  in  some  respects  to  Bradford, 
England.  The  educational  and  aesthetic  possibilities  of 
the  school  meal  are  recognized.) 

Simon,    Helene:    (a)      Schulspeisung:      Armenpflege    oder 

Schulpflege?     Gesetzliche  Regelung.     In  Soziale  Praxis. 

XVIII,   No.    1,   Oct.,    1908,   p.   i.   Duncker   &   Humbolt, 

Leipsig. 

(Is   school   feeding  the  affair  of   charity  or   school? 

Legislative  measures  necessary  if  it  is  to  be  effective.) 
(b)  Schule  und  Brot.    1908,  Leipsig,  Leopold  Voss.    112  pp. 

1st  edition,  1907. 


276  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

(General  treatment  of  the  whole  problem  from  the 
social,  economic  and  legal  points  of  view.  Propagandist 
rather  than  statistical.  Historical  and  descriptive  account 
of  English,  French  and  German  systems  to  date.) 

(c)  Die  Schulspeisung.  1909,  Leipsig.  (Oct.)  Duncker  und 
Humbolt.    93  pp.     Appendices. 

(General  treatment  of  whole  subject,  taking  into 
account  the  latest  German  reports  (see  Kaup,  No.  2), 
social,  economic  and  legal  aspects  and  implications. 
Other  countries.) 

(d)  Schulspeisung.  191 1.  Enzyklop.  Handbuch  des  Kinder- 
schutzes,  usw.,  pp.  206-213. 

(Material  in  Die  Schulspeisung,  1909,  brought  up  to 
date  and  condensed  for  encyclopedia.    Bibliography.) 

Ziegler,  G. :  Eine  Erhebung  iiber  die  Ernahrungsverhaltnisse 
der  Volkschuler.  Die  Deutsche  Schule.  June,  1910. 
XIV  Jahrgang,  6  Heft,  pp.  374-378. 

V.  Great  Britain 

Alden,  Percy:  English  Child  Life.  Outlook,  89:759-763, 
Aug.  1,  1908. 

Anson,  Sir  William  R. :  Provision  of  Food  for  School 
Children  in  Public  Elementary  Schools.  Economic 
Journal,  16:181-188,  June,  1906. 

Barnett,  Samuel  A.:  Free  Meals  for  Underfed  Children. 
Independent  Review,  6: 154-172,  June,  1905. 

Bradford  Education  Committee:  (a)  Return  as  to  the 
Pecuniary  Circumstances  of  966  Families  whose  Children 
have  been  Provided  with  Meals  under  the  Education  Act 
(Provision  of  Meals  Act,  1906).  1908.  Education  Offices, 
Manor  Row,  Bradford,  Eng.    Tables. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  277 

(b)  Report  for  1909.  Education  Office,  Manor  Row,  Brad- 
ford, Eng. 

(Statistics  of  school  feeding  in  B.,  1908-1909.  De- 
scriptive account  of  plant.) 

(c)  Recipes,  compiled  by  Marian  E.  Cuff  (Superintendent 
of  Domestic  Subjects)  and  used  in  the  preparation  of 
the  Seventeen  Dinners  served  in  the  School  Dining 
Rooms.  Pub.  at  Education  Offices,  Manor  Row,  Brad- 
ford, Eng.,  Feb.,  1908. 

Bristol  Education  Committee:  Report  for  year  ended 
March  31,  1909.  Bristol,  Times  and  Mirror,  St.  Stephen 
Street,  Bristol,  Eng. 

Clay,  Arthur  Temple  Felix  :  (a)  Free  Meals  for  Underfed 
Children.     Monthly  Review,  20  :  94-104,  July,   1905. 

(b)  School  Feeding  Question  in  England.  Charities  and 
Commons,  New  York.     17:699-707,  Jan.  19,  1907. 

Crowley,  R.  H.:  The  Provision  of  Meals  for  School  Chil- 
dren. Pub.  Health  (London),  20  (1908),  No.  5,  pp. 
325-335,  chart. 

Davies,  Mary  A. :  The  Feeding  of  School  Children  and  the 
Cookery  Classes.  Contemporary  Review,  87 :  564-569. 
April,  1905. 

Denyer,  C.  H.:  Feeding  of  School  Children  at  Public 
Expense.  Summary  of  official  reports.  Economic 
Journal,  16:617-622,  Dec,  1906. 

Edwards,  A.  D.:  Evolution,  Economy,  and  the  Child.  West- 
minster Review,  171 :  78-85,  Jan.,  1909. 

(A  defence  of  school  meals  from  the  points  of  view 
of  national  and  racial  evolution  upwards,  and  national 
economy.) 


278  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Elliott,  Sir  Charles:  Children's  Relief  Committees  in 
Elementary  Schools.  In  Report  of  the  Proceedings  of 
International  Congress  for  Welfare  and  Protection  of 
Children.  Special  Conference,  1906.  Westminster,  pub- 
lished for  the  committee  by  P.  S.  King  &  Son,  pp.  50-58. 

Fabian  Society:     After  Bread,  Education.     A  plan  for  the 

state  feeding  of  school  children.     London,  1905.     15  pp. 

(Fabian  Tract  No.   120.) 
The    Feeding   of    School    Children.     (Pub.    Health,    London, 

22   (1908),  No.  3,  pp.  97,  98.) 
Free  Meals   for   School  Children.     In  the  Reformer's   Year 

Book  for  1908,  4  Clement's  Inn,  London,  W.  C,  p.  94  ff. 
(Short  Summary  of  English  Provision  of  Meals  Act, 

1906,  with  report  of  English  Investigation  of  Continental 

Systems  of  School  Feeding.) 

Frere,  Margaret  (Member  of  the  Education  Committee, 
London  County  Council)  :  A  Scheme  for  Dealing  with 
Underfed  Children.  In  International  Congress  for  the 
Welfare  and  Protection  of  Children.  Special  confer- 
ence, 1906.)  Report  of  the  proceedings,  Westminster, 
Published  for  the  Committee  by  P.  S.  King  &  Son, 
pp.  58-65. 

Children's  Care  Committees.  P.  S.  King  &  Son,  Great 
Smith  Street,  Westminster,  1909.     is.  net.     86  pp. 

(Official  Handbook  for  members  of  "care  com- 
mittees" having  charge  of  social  and  charitable  work 
in  schools.  Ch.  II  on  "How  to  Feed  Necessitous  School 
Children."    Appendix  giving  typical  menus.) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  279 

Gorst,  Sir  John  Eldon  :  The  Children  of  the  Nation :  How 
their  Health  and  Vigour  should  be  Promoted  by  the 
State.     London,  Methuen  &  Co.,  1907,  207  pp. 

Hughes,  Robert  Edward:  Feeding  the  School  Children,  in 
his,  The  Making  of  Citizens,  2d  ed.,  London  (etc.),  The 
Walter  Scott  Publishing  Co.,  1906,  pp.  19-24. 

(Table  of  sums  distributed  in  various  European  cities, 
p.  22.) 

Hunter,  Robert:  Social  Significance  of  Underfed  Children. 
International  Quarterly,  12 :  330-349,  Jan.,  1906. 

Loch,  C.  S. :  The  Feeding  of  School  Children.  Yale  Review, 
12 :  230-250,  Nov.,  1906. 

(A  study  of  the  English  voluntary  system  of  school 
feeding,  and  an  argument  against  any  form  of  school 
meals.) 

London  School  Board:  Underfed  Children  Attending 
School,  1898-1899.  Report.  London,  Alexander  & 
Shepheard,  printers,  1899,  xv,  272  pp. 

Parliamentary  Reports  of  Great  Britain. 

(These  all  to  be  obtained  from  Wyman  &  Sons,  Fetter  Lane, 
E.  C,  or  Eyre  and  Spottiswoode,  East  Harding  Street, 
Fleet  Street,  E.  C.) 

1903  (Cd.  1507)  Price  is.  id.:  Report  of  the  Royal  Com- 
mission of  Physical  Training  (Scotland).  Vol.  1,  report 
and  appendix. 

(Containing  findings  of  committee  in  regard  to  nu- 
tritional condition  of  school  children,  and  proposals  in 
regard  to  school  feeding.) 


280  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1904  (Cd.  2175)  Price  is.  id.:  Report  of  the  Inter-Depart- 
mental Committee  on  Physical  Deterioration.  Vol.  I, 
report  and  appendix. 

(Proposals  of  this  committee  in  regard  to  feeding  of 
school  children,  pp.  65-71.) 

1905  (Cd.  2779  and  Cd.  2784)  :  Report  of  the  Inter-Depart- 
mental Committee  on  Medical  Inspection  and  Feeding  of 
Children  Attending  Public  Elementary  Schools.  Vol.  I. 
(Cd.  2779)  Price  is.  3d.    Vol.  II.  (Cd.  2784)  Price  3s. 

(Includes  statistical  account  of  the  voluntary  systems 
of  feeding  children  in  Great  Britain  in   1905.) 

1906  (Cd.  2926)  :  Statement  of  Information  collected  by  the 
Board  of  Education  and  the  Foreign  Office  regarding 
methods  adopted  in  Great  Continental  and  American 
Cities  for  dealing  with  Underfed  Children. 

(Statistical  and  classified  report  of  systems  in  38 
foreign  cities.) 

1906  (288) :  Special  Report  and  Report  from  the  Select 
Committee  on  the  Education  (Provision  of  Meals)  Bill, 
1906;  and  the  Education  (Provision  of  Meals)  (Scot- 
land) Bill,  1906;  together  with  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Committee,  Minutes  of  Evidence,  and  Appendix.  Price 
2s.  4d.  with  Index  and  Digest  of  Evidence. 

(Methods  and  administration  in  England,  particularly  in 
voluntary  systems  of  feeding,  reported  on  by  28  wit- 
nesses, all  with  practical  experience.  Valuable  and  sug- 
gestive for  practical  workers.) 

1907  (Cd.  3637),  Mackenzie,  W.  Leslie,  M.D.,  and  Captain 
Foster:  Report  on  a  collection  of  statistics  as  to  the 
Physical  Condition  of  Children  Attending  the  Public 
Schools  of  the  School  Board  for  Glasgow. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  281 

(Most  extensive  investigation  of  the  kind  ever  made, 
including  72,800  cases.  The  heights  and  weights  of  the 
children  classified  according  to  housing  and  nutrition.) 

1910  (Cd.  5131)  Price  3d.:  Report  on  the  Working  of  the 
Education  (Provision  of  Meals)  Act,  1906,  up  to  the 
31st  of  March,  1909. 

(Includes  a  classified  report  of  information  received 
from  over  one  hundred  towns  having  adopted  the  act. 
Administrative,  financial  and  educational  issues.) 

1910  (Cd.  5724;  Price  3d.:  Report  on  Working  of  Provision 
of  Meals  Act. 

(Continues  Cd.  5131  through  Dec,  1909.) 

1911  (Cd.  5925),  Newman,  George:  Annual  Report  for  1910 
of  the  Chief  Medical  Officer  of  the  Board  of  Education. 

(Complete  account  of  the  workings  of  the  Education 
Act,  1906  up  to  March,  1910.  Administration  of  Act 
now  in  hands  of  Medical  Division  of  Board  of  Educa- 
tion. Section  of  Malnutrition,  Statistics,  and  Classifica- 
tion, pp.  26-32.) 

London  County  Council 
(Publications  relative  to   School   Feeding.     To  be  obtained 
from  P.  S.  King  &  Son,  2-4  Great  Smith  Street,  Victoria 
Street,  Westminster,  S.  W.) 

No.  922.  1904-1905:  Report  of  the  Education  Committee  of 
the  London  County  Council  Submitting  the  Report  of 
the  Medical  Officer  (Education)  for  the  Year  ended 
March,  1905. 

(Short  statement  of  the  London  problem,  given  by- 
medical  officer.  Stigmata  of  malnutrition,  hereditary  and 
social  factors.  What  can  be  done:  in  general,  imme- 
diately.) 


282  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Nos.  962  and  1074.  1907 :  Reports  of  the  Joint  Committee  on 
Underfed  Children.  For  the  years  1905-1906,  1906-1907. 
Price  6d.,  post  free  7d. 

(These  reports  give  the  list  of  schools  having  meals, 
the  numbers  fed,  and  a  general  account  of  the  work  of 
school  feeding  in  London  for  the  year.) 

No.  1203.  1908 :  Home  Circumstances  of  "  Necessitous  "  Chil- 
dren in  Twelve  Selected  Schools.  Reports  by  the  chair- 
man of  the  Sub-Committee  on  Underfed  Children  and 
the  Education  officer,  submitting  report  by  the  organizers. 
(This  is  a  careful  inquiry  embracing  about  1200  chil- 
dren, reported  to  be  underfed,  giving  tabulated  results.) 

No.  1251.  1909:  Report  of  the  Education  Committee  of  the 
London  County  Council  Submitting  the  Report  of  the 
Medical  Officer  (Education)  for  the  Twenty-one  months 
ended  31st  Dec,  1908.  Presented  to  the  Council,  nth 
May,  1909,  pp.  16-20.     Price  2s.,  post  free  2s.  3d. 

(School  Feeding.  Stigmata  of  malnutrition  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  medical  inspector;  report  of  ex- 
amination of  over  10,000  children  in  regard  to  their 
nutrition,  and  classified  according  to  nature  of  the  dis- 
trict; heights  and  weights  of  children  in  badly  fed  and 
well  fed  sections.  Review  of  Dr.  Gastpar's  work.  See 
Bibliography.) 

No.  1318.  1908-1909:  Report  of  the  Education  Committee 
Submitting  the  Report  of  the  Education  Officer  for  the 
Educational  Year  1908-1909.  Part  II.  The  Provision  of 
Meals  for  Necessitous  Children  and  the  Work  of 
Children's  Care  Committees.  Presented  to  the  Council 
1st  March,  1910. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  283 

(This  gives  complete  statistical  account  of  the  work  in 
London  for  1907-1908  and  1908-1909.) 

Education  Committee  (Children's  Care,  Central,  Sub-com- 
mittee) :  Handbook  containing  general  information  with 
reference  to  the  work  in  connection  with  the  Children's 
Care  (Central)  Sub-committee.  Price  is.;  post  free  is.  3d. 
(Official  handbook  for  members,  giving  technical  and 
legal  information  about  all  points  covered  in  care  com- 
mittee work  in  London.  Appendix  J  gives  14  typical 
menus  for  100  children.) 

McMillan,  Margaret,  and  Cobden- Sanderson,  A. :  London's 
Children,  How  to  Feed  Them  and  How  Not  to  Feed 
Them.  Published  by  the  Independent  Labour  Party, 
23  Bride  Lane,  Fleet  Street,  London,  E.  C,  1909.  Price  id. 
(A  criticism  of  present  methods  of  work  in  London, 
with  constructive  suggestions  for  bettering  them.) 

Macnamara,  Dr.  Thomas  James  :  (a)  Physical  Condition  of 
Working-class  Children,  Nineteenth  Century,  56:307-311, 
Aug.,  1904. 

(b)  In  Corpore  Sano.  Contemporary  Review,  87:238-248, 
Jan.,  1905. 

O'Brien,  M.  D. :  Child  and  the  Home.  Westminster  Review, 
165:668-675,  June,  1906. 

Oxford  House  Magazine:  January,  1909.  Bethnal  Green, 
London.  Price  6d.  Symposium  on  the  Feeding  of 
Necessitous  Children,  pp.  33-54. 

(Written  before  London  adopted  1906  act.  Gives 
short  history  of  movement  in  England,  and  then  argu- 
ments from  the  "Socialist"  and  "Individualist"  stand- 
point.) 


284  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Palin,  Councillor  J.  H. :   Bradford  and  its  Children :  How 

They  are  Fed.     Published  by  the  Independent  Labour 

Party,  23  Bride  Lane,  Fleet  Street,  London,  E.  C,  1908. 

(History   of   movement   in   Bradford,   written  by   an 

active  worker.     Interesting.) 

Philpott,  Hugh  B.:  School  as  a  Social  Force.  In  his 
"  London  at  School."  London,  T.  Fisher  Unwin,  1904,  pp. 
290-314.  (The  East  Lambeth  Teachers'  Association;  the 
penny  meal;  the  scholars'  free  meal  fund  can  feed  5000 
children  a  day.) 

Royal  Commission  on  the  Poor  Laws  and  the  Relief  of 
Distress  (Minority  Report)  :  Report  1238  pp.  (Cd. 
4499)  5s.  6d.  See  p.  195.  Relief  School  Children's  Order, 
IQ05;  Pp.  197-198.  Education  (Provision  of  Meals)  Act, 
1906;  pp.  834-840.     School  Feeding. 

Smyth,  A.  Watt:  Physical  Deterioration:  Its  Causes  and 
the  Remedy.     New  York.    E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.,  1904. 

(The  findings  of  the  Parliamentary  Commissions  on 
National  Deterioration  in  England,  brought  together  in 
readable  form,  together  with  suggested  remedies.  See 
Bibliog.  Great  Britain  Parliamentary  Reports.  Cd.  1507 
and  Cd.  2175.) 

Stewart,  Gwendolyn:  School  Dinners  in  London  Schools. 
In  The  Journal  of  Home  Economics,  Vol.  II,  No.  2. 

(Account  of  personal  observation  of  the  service  and 
organization  of  meals  in  the  one  meal  centre  in  London.) 

Webb,  Sidney  and  Beatrice:  The  Prevention  of  Destitution. 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  39  Paternoster  Row,  London, 
1911. 

(Sections  showing  result  of  various  acts  of  legislation 
on  social  progress.) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  285 


VI.  Italy 

Boselli,  A.:  La  refeziona  scolastica  a  Bologna.  Boll,  delle 
sz.  med.  Ser  VIII  5   (1905). 

Lancet  Reports  :  See  Bibliog.    Sec.  III. 

(Description  at  first  hand  of  systems  in  Milan, 
Vercelli,  and  San  Remo.) 

Schiavi,  Alessandro  (Director  of  the  Labor  Bureau  of  the 
"  Societa  Umanitaria,"  Milan,  and  Municipal  Councillor 
of  Milan)  :  Les  Cantines  Scolaires  Municipales  de  Milan. 
In  "Les  Annales  de  la  Regie  Directe,"  1909,  June-July, 
Geneva,  p.  152  ff. 

(An  account  of  the  development  of  school  meals  in 
Milan,  giving  menus,  statistical  tables  of  numbers  fed, 
finances,  etc.) 

Spargo,  John:  How  Foreign  Municipalities  Feed  Their 
School  Children.  In  his  "The  Bitter  Cry  of  the  Chil- 
dren," New  York,  Macmillan  Co.,  1906. 

(An  account  of  the  free  and  compulsory  system  of 
feeding  at  Vercelli  in  existence  from  1900-1906,  now 
succeeded  by  a  privately  directed,  publicly  subsidized 
organization.) 

Tonsig,  Dr.  C.  (Director  of  Medical  Inspection  in  Padua) : 
t)ber  das  Schiilerfruhstuck,  mit  besonderer  Beriicksich- 
tigung  der  in  der  stadt  Padua  bestehenden  Einrichtungen. 
In  Zeit.  f.  Schulges.,  vol.  17,  1902,  p.  605  ff.  See  Bibliog. 
Sec.  VIII. 

(Account  of  the  first  critical  analysis  ever  made  of 
the  food  values  of  the  meals  served  at  school.  Marks 
the  beginning  of  an  important  kind  of  inr-iry.) 


286  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

VII.  Malnutrition 

ITS     CAUSES,    SYMPTOMS,     RESULTS     AND     CLASSI- 
FICATION 

Badger,  George,  S.C.,  M.D. :  Malnutrition  in  School  Children. 
Proceedings  of  the  Sixth  Congress  of  the  American 
School  Hygiene  Association,  Springfield,  Mass.,  1912. 
(Recommended  for  the  conducting  of  special  classes 
for  acute  cases  of  malnutrition,  the  enumeration  of 
causes,  with  stress  on  lack  of  sleep  and  bad  food 
habits.) 

Bray,  Reginald:  Malnutrition  and  the  School  Meal.  In  his 
"The  Town  Child,"  London,  T.  Fisher  Unwin,  1907, 
pp.  106-117. 

Bean,  Homer  C. :  Starvation  and  Mental  Development  In 
The   Psychological  Clinic,   May,   1910,  p.  78. 

(The  study  of  the  results,  psychological  and  physical, 
of  starvation,  during  the  first  six  years  of  life.  The  boy, 
sixteen  years  old  at  the  time,  had  not  acquired  some  of 
the  most  fundamental  neuro-muscular  co-ordinations.) 

Beeley,  Dr.:  Report  of  the  School  Medical  Officer  of  East 
Sussex  (England),  1910. 

(Relation  of  enlarged  glands  to  enlarged  tonsils, 
dental  caries  and  defective  nutrition.) 

Dr.  Burgerstein,  Leo,  and  Netolitzky,  Dr.  August: 
Handbuch  der  Schulhygiene,  pp.  207-210.  Section  on 
Abspeisung. 

(Account   of   School   Lunch   Movement   in   different 
countries,   with   stress   on  administrative   requirements.) 

Camerer,  Wilhelm:  Ernahrung  des  Kindes.  In  Das  Buch 
vom  Kinde.,  pp.  48-50,  Leipsig,  1907. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  287 

Chate,  Dr.:  Report  of  School  Medical  Officer  of  Middlesex 
(England),  1910. 

(Special  investigation  of  the  causes  of  defective  nu- 
trition.) 

Cornell,  Walter  S.,  M.D. :    Health  and  Medical  Inspection 
of  School  Children.    F.  S.  Davis  Co.,  Philadelphia,  1912. 
(Chapter   on   Nutrition,   pp.   479-498,   and   section   on 
School  Feeding,  pp.  100-114.) 

Crowley,  Ralph  E.  (Medical  Dept.  of  Board  of  Education, 
Great  Britain) :  (a)  The  Hygiene  of  School  Life. 
London.     Methuen  &  Co.,  36  Essex  Street,  W.  C.  1910. 

(General  treatment  of  nutrition  of  child,  p.  12  ff. 
Chapter  on  the  Provision  of  School  Meals.  This  chap- 
ter represents  the  author's  conclusions  in  regard  to 
the  subject,  reached  after  several  years  of  practical  ex- 
perience in  organizing  meals  in  Bradford.) 
(b)  Report  by  the  Medical  Superintendent.  (In  conjunction 
with  Superintendent  of  Domestic  Subjects,  Marian  E. 
Cuff.)  On  a  course  of  meals  given  to  Necessitous  Chil- 
dren from  April  to  July,  1907.  Published  by  city  of 
Bradford  Education  Committee,  Bradford,  England, 
Sept.,  1907.     (Out  of  print.) 

(This  is  an  account  of  an  experiment  to  determine  the 
effect  of  food  alone  on  the  health  and  growth  of  school 
children.  It  is  notable  in  being  the  first  experiment 
where  proper  precautions  were  taken  to  isolate  the 
factor  of  food,  and  to  have  control  records  kept.  The 
original  report  is  out  of  print,  but  a  summary  of  its  con- 
clusions and  the  chart  in  the  original  are  given  in 
"  Progress,"  April,  1908.     See  Bibliog.  sec.  VIII. 


288  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Gastpar,  Dr.  (of  Stuttgart)  :  Die  Beurteilung  des  Ernahr- 
ungszustandes  der  Schulkinder.  Zeit.  of  Schulges.,  xxi. 
Jahr.  1908.  689-702. 

(The  correlation  of  thirteen  diseases  found  in  8000 
school  children,  with  their  nutritional  condition.  Four 
times  as  many  cases  of  disease  are  found  among  the 
badly  nourished  as  among  the  well  nourished.  6  tables. 
Practical  method  of  classifying  nutrition.  A  remarkable 
and  highly  significant  piece  of  work,  and  the  first  of 
its  kind.) 

Hastings,  Dr.  W.  W. :  Manual  of  Physical  Measurements. 
Springfield,  Mass.,  1902. 

(Gives  standard  tables  of  weights  and  measurements 
for  different  ages,  with  methods  of  registering  same.) 

Hoag,  E.  B. :  The  Health  Index  of  Children.  San  Francisco, 
Whitaker  &  Ray-Wiggin  Co.,  1910. 

Hogarth,  A.  H.,  M.D. :  Medical  Inspection  of  Schools. 
London.  Henry  Fronde.  Oxford  University  Press. 
1909. 

(Short  statement  of  Koppe's  scheme  of  classifying 
nutrition,  pp.  157-158.) 

Holt,  Emmet  L.,  M.D. :  I.  The  Diseases  of  Infancy  and 
Childhood.  2.  The  Care  and  Feeding  of  Children.  A 
catechism  for  the  use  of  mothers  and  children's  nurses. 
Fourth  edition  revised  and  enlarged.  New  York  and 
London,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  1007.     192  pages. 

Kelynack,  T.  N.,  M.D. :  Medical  Examination  of  Schools  and 
Scholars.  London.  Published  by  P.  S.  King  &  Son, 
Orchard  House,  Westminster,  S.  W.,  1910. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  289 

Knopf,  S.  A.,  M.D. :  The  Duties  of  the  School  Teacher  in 
the  Combat  of  Tuberculosis  as  a  Disease  of  the  Masses. 
Pp.  21-22.  A  special  study  of  the  dietaries  of  thirty-four 
families,  all  having  undernourished  children. 

Mackenzie,  W.  Leslie,  M.D. :  The  Medical  Inspection  of 
School  Children.  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow.  William 
Hodge  &  Co.,  1904. 

(Excellent  summary  of  the  effects  of  food  in  racial 
selection  and  the  relation  of  nutrition  to  growth.  Pp. 
196-231  include  tables  of  height  and  weight.  Subject 
treated  practically  as  aid  to  medical  inspection.) 

Mendel,  Lafayette  Benedict:  (a)  Some  Features  of  Nutri- 
tion During  Growth.  Jour,  of  Home  Economics,  Vol. 
Ill,  June,  191 1. 

(A  helpful  discussion  of  the  peculiar  needs  of  the 
growing  body.) 

(6)  Childhood  and  Growth:  a  paper  read  Oct.  6,  1905,  before 
the  New  Haven  Mothers'  Club,  with  an  introduction  by 
Horace  Fletcher.  New  York,  the  F.  A.  Stokes  Company, 
1906,  54  Pages. 

Oppenheim,  Nathan:  The  Care  of  the  Child  in  Health. 
New  York  and  London,  The  Macmillan  Company,  1900, 
vii,  308  pages. 

Sill,  Dr.  E.  Mather:  (a)  A  Study  of  Malnutrition  in  the 
School  Child.  In  the  Jour.  Amer.  Med.  Assoc,  vol.  Hi, 
No.  25. 

(A  study  of  causes.    The  home  conditions,  meals,  etc., 

of  310  New  York  children  suffering  from  malnutrition.) 

(b)    Dietary    Studies    of   Undernourished    School    Children 

in  New  York  City.    Jour.  Amer.  Med.  Assoc,  Nov.  26, 

1910,  p.  1886. 

19 


290  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Taylor,  Charles  Keen:  The  Psychological  Clinic,  April, 
1912. 

(Describes  the  result  of  comparing  the  school  progress 
and  conduct  marks  of  children  drinking  coffee  and  those 
not  drinking  coffee.    Two  tables.) 

Wood,  Thomas  Denison  :  Health  and  Education.  The  Ninth 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of 
Education,  Part  1.  Published  by  the  University  of 
Chicago  Press,  Chicago,  111.,  1910.  Net  $0.75,  postpaid 
$0.80. 

(Gives  tables  of  standard  weights  and  heights  of 
American  children  at  different  ages  and  based  on  meas- 
urements during  ten  years,  of  boys  and  girls  in  Horace 
Mann  School,  New  York.  These  compared  with  and 
checked  up  by  work  of  Hastings  and  Bowditch.) 

VIII.  Periodicals 

Archiv  fur  Volkswohlfahrt:  Deutscher  Verlag  fur  Volks- 
wohlfahrt.  G.  m.  b.  h.,  Berlin,  W.  Nollensdorfstrasse,  30. 

The  British  Medical  Journal,  London:  (The  management 
of  this  journal  has  taken  an  active  interest  in  School 
Feeding  since  it  started  in  Great  Britain,  and  has  pub- 
lished frequent  articles  on  the  subject.) 

The  Child:  Published  monthly  by  John  Bale  Sons  & 
Danielsson,  Ltd.  $0.50  per  copy,  $5.25  a  year.  83-91 
Great  Tichfield  Street,  Oxford  Street,  London,  W. 

Concordia:  Zeitschrift  der  Zentralstelle  fur  Volkswohlfahrt. 
Berlin,  S.  W.,  11  Dessauerstrasse. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  291 

Internationales  Archiv  fur  Schulhygiene:  Quarterly  publica- 
tion by  Otto  Gmelin,  Munich,  Liebherrstrasse  8.  Organ 
of  the  permanent  committee  of  the  International  Con- 
gresses on  School  Hygiene  and  of  the  International 
Society  for  School  Hygiene.  Collaborating  editors  and 
publishers,  Dr.  Albert  Matthieu,  Paris;  Sir  Lauder- 
Brunton,  M.D.,  London;  Dr.  Med.  Axel  Johannesen, 
Christiania;  Dr.  Med.  et  phil.  Herman  Griesbach,  Muhl- 
hausen,  Basel. 

The  Journal  of  Home  Economics:  Published  bi-monthly  by 
the  American  Home  Economics  Association.  $0.40  per 
copy,  $2.00  a  year.    Roland  Park  Branch,  Baltimore,  Md. 

The  Lancet:  London,  423-424,  Strand.  (Frequent  discussions 
on  subject  from  medical  standpoint.) 

La  Medicine  Scolaire:  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  des  Medicins 
Inspecteurs  des  ficoles.  Paris,  Charles  Delagrave,  15  Rue 
Soufflot. 

Progress:  Organ  of  the  British  Institute  of  Social  Service, 
11  Southampton  Row,  London,  W.  C.  Quarterly.  Per 
annum  2s.  6d.     (An  English  "  Survey.") 

Second  International  Congress  on  School  Hygiene  (see  be- 
low) :  London,  1907,  Royal  Sanitary  Institute,  London, 
1908,  3  vols. 

(Considerable   discussion   of    School    Feeding.) 

School  Hygiene:  Published  monthly  by  the  School  Hygiene 
Publication  Co.,  Ltd.  Price  6d.  net  per  copy,  7s.  6d.  a 
year.    2  Charlotte  Street,  London,  W. 

Der  Schularzt  (supplementary  publication)  :  Organ  of  the 
School  Medical  Inspectors  of  Germany.  Published  and 
edited  by  the  same  people  as  Zeit.  f.  Schulges.    (  See  below.) 


292  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

(Treats  subjects  of  school  hygiene  from  a  definitely 
technical   standpoint.) 

The  Survey:  A  journal  of  constructive  philanthropy,  pub- 
lished by  the  Charity  Organization  Society  of  the  City 
of  New  York,  105  E.  22d  Street,  New  York,  and  35 
Dearborn   Street,   Chicago.     Price  $2.00  a  year. 

Zeitschrift  fur  Schulgesundheitspflege-'  Edited  by  Dr. 
Stephani,  Mannheim,  pub.  Leopold  Voss,  Hamburg. 
Monthly,  annually,  sub.  12  marks. 

IX.  Switzerland 

Erismann,  Dr.  F.  (Stadtrat,  Zurich,  Director  of  Medical 
Inspection)  :  Ernahrung  und  Kleidung  diirf tiger  Schul- 
kinder.  36  pages.  In  Jahrb.  der  Schweiz.  Gesellschaft 
fur   Schulgesundheitspflege.    IX  Jahr.,    1908,   Zurich. 

(Account  of  school  feeding  in  Switzerland,  with 
critical  analysis  of  food  values  of  meals  in  Zurich  and 
Basle.  The  only  general  account  of  the  present  Swiss 
system  printed.) 

1889,  Switzerland :  Zeit.  f.  Schulges.,  Vol.  II,  1889,  pp.  54  and 
90-91. 

(Enumeration  and  description  of  societies  for  school 
feeding  then  existing.) 

X.  United  States 

Anderson,  Alma:  Hot  Lunches  for  the  Country  School. 
School  Education,  31 :  18,  March,  1912. 

Anderson,  Elizabeth  N. :  "  After  Bread — Education." 
Teacher,  11:0-11,  Jan.,  1907. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  293 

Ayres,  Leonard  P.:  Open  Air  Schools,  1910,  New  York, 
Doubleday  &  Page,  Chapter  VI. 

(Describes  feeding  in  Open  Air  Schools.) 

Bonnell,  Henry  H. :  First  Annual  Report  of  the  School 
Lunch  Committee  of  the  Home  and  School  League. 
Philadelphia,  December,  191 1. 

(Account  of  lunches  in  Philadelphia  schools,  with 
particular  reference  to  experimental  work  and  study  of 
home  conditions.    7  tables.) 

Boughton,  Alice  C. :  (a)  Administration  of  School  Lunches, 
Psychological  Clinic,  April,  1912. 

(Problems  of  administration  and  how  they  are  being 
met  in  Philadelphia.) 

(b)  Penny  Luncheons.    Psychological  Clinic,  Jan.  15,  191 1. 

(Plan  of  work  under  auspices  of  Home  and  School 
League.) 

(c)  Report  of  the  Penny  Lunches  Served  in  the  Starr  Centre 
Association,  Philadelphia.  In  The  Journal  of  Home 
Economics,  April,   1910. 

(d)  School  Luncheons,  Jour,  of  Home  Economics,  vol.  iii, 
No.  1,  Feb.,  191 1. 

Bryant,  Louise  Stevens:  (a)  The  Feeding  of  School  Chil- 
dren, Dietetic  and  Hygienic  Gazette,  Sept.,  1910,  vol.  xxvi, 
No.  9,  pp.  527-536. 

(Summary  of  history,  detailed  description  of  Brad- 
ford system,  correlation  of  malnutrition  with  other 
physical  defects,  and  mental  defects.    Two  charts.) 

(b)  School  Feeding  in  Europe.  Journal  of  Home  Economics, 
April,  1910,  pp.  149-159. 


294  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

(A  summary  of  the  present  condition  of  school  feeding 
in  France,  England,  Germany,  Italy  and  other  European 
countries.) 
(c)  The   School   Feeding  Movement.     Psychological   Clinic, 
April,  1912. 

(General  historical  summary  of  work  abroad,  together 
with  special  investigations  into  underfeeding  among 
American  school  children.     Four  tables.) 

Bull,  Mary  L. :  Domestic  Science  in  Rural  Schools. 
Minnesota  Farmers'  Library,  Vol.  II,  No.  7,  Univ.  of 
Minn.,  Extension  Div. 

(Suggestions  for  warm  lunches  in  rural  schools,  with 
simple  recipes.) 

Burnham,  Wm.  H. :  Food  and  Feeding.  Cyclopedia  of 
Education,  Vol.  II,  p.  627-630.  New  York,  Macmillan, 
1911. 

(Sections  on  Nutrition,  School  Lunches  in  America  and 
England,  careful  argument  for  School  Lunch  as  part 
of  school  life  and  equipment.    Bibliography.) 

Chapin,  Robert  Cort.  :  The  Standard  of  Living  Among 
Workingmen's  Families  in  New  York  City.  Published 
by  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation.  New  York,  Charities 
Publication    Committee,    1909. 

(The  factor  of  food  is  treated  prominently.  Estimates 
are  given  of  the  percentages  of  "  underfed  families "  in 
New  York  City,  grouped  according  to  the  income.  Under- 
feeding exists  in  76  per  cent,  of  the  cases  where  the 
family  income  lies  between  $400  and  $699  and  is  found 
to  lessen  as  the  incomes  rise,  until  only  9  per  cent,  of 
the  families  receiving  $000  to  $1009  a  year  are  underfed, 
and  disappears  with  the  income  of  $1100  and  over.) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  295 

Chicago  Board  of  Education:  Chicago  Public  Schools: 
Reports  on  Underfed  Children.    Chicago,  1908,  23  pages. 

Curran,  Margaret  Craig:  Warm  Lunches  in  Country- 
Schools.  Northwest  Journal  of  Education,  23 :  161-168, 
December,  191 1. 

Devine,  Edward  Thomas:  (a)  Feeding  the  School  Children 
in  New  York.  Charities  and  the  Commons,  20 :  381-382, 
June  20,  1908. 

(b)  Underfed  Child  in  the  Schools.  Charities  and  the  Com- 
mons, 20 :  413-416,  June  27,   1908. 

Dunbar,  O.  H. :   Three-cent  Luncheons  for  School  Children. 
Outlook,  Jan.   7,   191 1,  vol.  xlvii,   pp.  34-37. 
(Account  of  New  York  work  to  date.) 

Farrell,  Elizabeth  :  School  Lunches  in  the  Special  Classes 
of  the  Public  Schools — A  Suggestive  Experiment. 
Charities,   13:560-571,  March   11,   1905. 

Garber,  John  E. :  Annals  of  Educational  Progress,  Phila., 
1911. 

(Section  on  School  Lunches.) 

Hamilton,  James  H.:  (a)  The  School  Children's  Lunch 
Room.  In  Charities  and  Commons,  20,  1908,  No.  12, 
pp.  400-402. 

(b)  The  Heritage  of  the  Hungry.  Compulsory  School 
Attendance  and  the  Underfed  Child. 

(Reader  Magazine,  New  York,  6:365-373,  Sept.,  1905.) 

Hollopeter,  Dr.  W.  G:  The  School  Child's  Breakfast.  In 
the  Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Association,  vol. 
liii,  No.  21,  Nov.,  1909,  p.  1727. 


296  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

(Frequency  of  underfeeding  reported  in  Great  Britain. 
Breakfastless  children  in  this  country.  Poverty  the  real 
cause  only  in  small  proportion.  Real  cause,  the  un- 
hygienic condition  of  the  home  that  must  be  remedied.) 

Hunter,  Robert  :  The  Child.  In  his  "  Poverty,"  New  York. 
The  Macmillan  Company,  1904,  pp.  190-260. 

Kittredge,  Mabel  H. :  Experiments  with  School  Lunches  in 
New  York  City.  In  the  Journal  of  Home  Economics, 
April,  1910. 

Mayer,  M.  J.:  Vital  Question  of  School  Lunches.  Review 
of  Reviews,  vol.  xliii,  455-459,  April,  191 1. 

Mowry,  Mrs.  D. :  Penny  Lunches  in  Milwaukee  Public 
ScKools.     American  City,  vol.  iv,  283-288,  June,  191 1. 

Nearing,  Scott:  Underfed  School  Children,  in  his  "Social 
Adjustment,"  Philadelphia,  191 1. 

Northend,  M.  H.:  Children's  Luncheons.  Illustrated. 
Harper's  Bazar,  New  York,  Jan.,  191 1. 

Perkins,  Frances:  Some  Facts  Concerning  Undernourished 
Children.     The  Survey,   vol.   xxv,  pp.   68-72. 

(Home  conditions  of  several  hundred  underfed  school 
children  in  New  York  City.) 

Phillips,  Walter  L. :  School  Lunches  at  Lansdowne,  Pa. 
School  Progress,  April,  191 1. 

(An  account  of  lunches  in  a  consolidated  school  where 
75  per  cent,  of  the  pupils  cannot  go  home  at  noon.) 

Richards,  Ellen  H.,  and  Talbot  M. :  Food  as  a  Factor  in 
Student  Life,  Chicago,  1894. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  297 

Rose,  Mary  Schwartz:  The  School  Dietitian.  The  Psycho- 
logical Clinic,  April,  1912. 

(Requisites  for  the  new  profession  of  School  Dietetics.) 

Spargo,  John:  The  Problem  of  the  Underfed  Children  in 
Our  Public  Schools.  Independent,  58,  1060-1063,  May  11, 
1905. 

Superintendents'  Reports:  New  York,  Buffalo,  Cleveland, 
Rochester,  St.  Louis,  Philadelphia,  Houston,  Chicago, 
Cincinnati,  etc. 

Taylor,  Charles  Keen:  The  Moral  Training  of  Children. 
Philadelphia,   1912. 

(Section  on  The  School  Lunch.) 

Torrey,  Emmeline  E. :  Penny  Lunch  Movement.  Good 
Housekeeping,  52,  242-244,  191 1. 

(Illustrated.     Describes  lunches  in  Boston  Schools.) 

White,  M.  L. :  A  Study  of  the  Undernourished  School 
Children  of  Baltimore.  In  The  Journal  of  Home 
Economics,  April,  1910. 

Wile,  Ira  S. :  School  Lunches.  Journal  of  Home  Economics. 
Vol.  ii,  No.  2,  pp.  162-169,  Roland  Park,  Baltimore,  Md. 
(The  need  of  the  lunch  for  elementary  pupils.  Ex- 
tent and  causes  of  malnutrition  in  the  United  States. 
Educative  value  of  lunches.  Food  values.  Variation  in 
diet  imposed  by  race  and  religion.) 

Worcester,  Wood  F.  and  Daisy  W.:  Woman  and  Child 
Wage-Earners  in  the  United  States.    In  19  volumes. 

(Vol.  XVI.  Family  Budgets  of  Typical  Cotton  Mill 
Workers.  Extensive  accounts  and  analyses  of  food  con- 
ditions, expenditures,  food  values,  etc.) 


APPENDICES 


APPENDIX  A 

Education  (Provision  of  Meals)  Act,  1906 
CHAPTER  57 
An  Act  to  make  provision  for  Meals  for  Children  attending 
Public  Elementary  Schools  in  England  and  Wales. 

[21st  December,  1906.] 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  King's  Most  Excellent  Majesty,  by 
and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Lords  Spiritual  and 
Temporal,  and  Commons,  in  this  present  Parliament 
assembled,  and  by  the  authority  of  the  same,  as  follows: — 

Power  of  Local  Education  Authority  to  Aid  School  Canteen 
Committees  in  the  Provision  of  Meals  for  Children 
I.  A  Local  Education  Authority  under  Part  III  of  the 
Education  Act,  1902,  may  take  such  steps  as  they  think  fit  for 
the  provision  of  meals  for  children  in  attendance  at  any 
public  elementary  school  in  their  area,  and  for  that  purpose — 

(a)  may   associate    with    themselves    any    committee    on 

which  the  authority  are  represented,  who  will 
undertake  to  provide  food  for  those  children  (in 
this  Act  called  a  "  school  canteen  committee")  ;  and 

(b)  may    aid    that   committee   by    furnishing   such    land, 

buildings,  furniture,  and  apparatus,  and  such 
officers  and  servants  as  may  be  necessary  for  the 
organisation,  preparation,  and  service  of  such 
meals ; 

299 


300  APPENDIX 

but,  save  as  hereinafter  provided,  the  authority  shall  not 
incur  any  expense  in  respect  of  the  purchase  of  food  to  be 
supplied  at  such  meals. 

Recovery  of  the  Cost  of  Meals 

2. — (i)  There  shall  be  charged  to  the  parent  of  every 
child  in  respect  of  every  meal  furnished  to  that  child  under 
this  Act  such  an  amount  as  may  be  determined  by  the  local 
education  authority,  and,  in  the  event  of  payment  not  being 
made  by  the  parent,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Authority, 
unless  they  are  satisfied  that  the  parent  is  unable  by  reason 
of  circumstances  other  than  his  own  default  to  pay  the 
amount,  to  require  the  payment  of  that  amount  from  that 
parent,  and  any  such  amount  may  be  recovered  summarily 
as  a  civil  debt. 

(2)  The  Local  Education  Authority  shall  pay  over  to  the 
school  canteen  committee  so  much  of  any  money  paid  to  them 
by,  or  recovered  from,  any  parent  as  may  be  determined  by 
the  authority  to  represent  the  cost  of  the  food  furnished  by 
the  committee  to  the  child  of  that  parent,  less  a  reasonable 
deduction  in  respect  of  the  expenses  of  recovering  the  same. 

Power  of  Local  Education  Authority  to  Defray  the  Cost  of 
Food  in  Certain  Cases 

3.  Where  the  Local  Education  Authority  resolve  that  any 
of  the  children  attending  an  elementary  school  within  their 
area  are  unable  by  reason  of  lack  of  food  to  take  full  ad- 
vantage of  the  education  provided  for  them,  and  have  ascer- 
tained that  funds  other  than  public  funds  are  not  available 
or  are  insufficient  in  amount  to  defray  the  cost  of  food  fur- 
nished in  meals  under  this  Act,  they  may  apply  to  the  Board 


APPENDIX  301 

of  Education,  and  that  Board  may  authorise  them  to  spend 
out  of  the  rates  such  sum  as  will  meet  the  cost  of  the  provision 
of  such  food,  provided  that  the  total  amount  expended  by  a 
Local  Education  Authority  for  the  purposes  of  this  section 
in  any  local  financial  year  shall  not  exceed  the  amount  which 
would  be  produced  by  a  rate  of  one  halfpenny  in  the  pound 
over  the  area  of  the  authority,  or,  where  the  Authority  is  a 
County  Council  (other  than  the  London  County  Council), 
over  the  area  of  the  parish  or  parishes  which  in  the  opinion 
of  the  council  are  served  by  the  school. 

Provisions  as  to  Disfranchisement 

4.  The  provision  of  any  meal  under  this  Act  to  a  child 
and  the  failure  on  the  part  of  the  parent  to  pay  any  amount 
demanded  under  this  Act  in  respect  of  a  meal  shall  not 
deprive  the  parent  of  any  franchise,  right,  or  privilege,  or 
subject  him  to  any  disability. 

Application  of  Education  Acts 

5. — (1)  The  powers  of  a  Local  Education  Authority  under 
this  Act  shall  be  deemed  to  be  powers  of  that  Authority 
under  the  Education  Acts,  1870  to  1903,  and  the  provisions 
of  those  Acts  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  expenses  of  a 
Local  Education  Authority  are  to  be  charged  and  defrayed, 
and  as  to  borrowing,  and  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
amount  which  would  be  produced  by  any  rate  in  the  pound 
is  to  be  estimated,  shall  apply  to  expenses  incurred  and 
money  borrowed  under  this  Act,  and  to  the  estimate  of  the 
produce  of  any  rate  in  the  pound  for  the  purposes  of  this  Act. 

(2)  Any  expression  to  which  a  special  meaning  is  attached 
in  the  Education  Acts,   1870  to   1903,  shall  have  the  same 


302  APPENDIX 

meaning  in  this  Act,  except  that  for  the  purposes  of  this  Act 
the  expression  "  child "  shall,  notwithstanding  anything  in 
section  forty-eight  of  the  Elementary  Education  Act,  1876, 
include  any  child  in  attendance  at  a  public  elementary  school. 

Provision  as  to  Teachers 

6.  No  teacher  seeking  employment  or  employed  in  a  public 
elementary  school  shall  be  required  as  part  of  his  duties  to 
supervise  or  assist,  or  to  abstain  from  supervising  or  assist- 
ing, in  the  provision  of  meals,  or  in  the  collection  of  the  cost 
thereof. 

Extent  of  Act 

7.  This  Act  shall  not  apply  to  Scotland. 

Short  Title 

8.  This  Act  may  be  cited  as  the  Education  (Provision  of 
Meals)  Act,  1906. 


APPENDIX  B 

Circulars  Issued  by  the  Board  of  Education 

I. 

Circular  552. 

Board  of  Education, 
Whitehall,  London,  S.  W., 
Sir,  January  1st,  1907. 

The  Education  (Provision  of  Meals)  Act,  1906,  which 
came  into  operation  on  the  21st  day  of  December,  1906,  gives 
to  Local  Education  Authorities,  for  the  first  time,  statutory 
powers  in  regard  to  the  important  matter  of  the  provision  of 
meals  for  children  attending  our  public  elementary  schools. 


APPENDIX  303 

It  brings  those  Authorities  into  recognised  relation  with  the 
voluntary  agencies  which  already  exist  in  many  localities  for 
providing  meals  for  school  children,  and  gives  them  power 
to  aid  such  agencies  by  provision  of  kitchens,  dining-rooms 
and  plant,  as  well  as  of  cooks,  servers  and  other  necessary 
officers.  It  further  empowers  the  Authorities,  where  sufficient 
funds  for  the  purchase  of  food  from  voluntary  contributions 
and  parents'  payments  are  not  forthcoming,  to  spend  money 
from  the  rates  for  the  provision  of  food  for  such  meals 
within  the  limit  of  a  halfpenny  rate. 

The  Act,  which  is  purely  permissive  and  imposes  no  duty 
where  a  Local  Education  Authority  think  it  unnecessary  to 
bring  it  into  operation,  is  primarily  of  an  educational  char- 
acter. Its  object  is  to  ensure  that  children  attending  public 
elementary  schools  shall,  so  far  as  possible,  be  no  longer 
prevented  by  insufficiency  of  suitable  food  from  profiting  by 
the  education  offered  in  our  schools,  and  it  aims  at  securing 
that  for  this  purpose  suitable  meals  shall  be  available  just 
as  much  for  those  whose  parents  are  in  a  position  to  pay  as 
for  those  to  whom  food  must  be  given  free  of  cost.  It  is 
obvious  that  the  passing  of  this  Act  opens  up  possibilities  of 
a  most  beneficial  nature,  if  its  operation  is  handled  with  full 
circumspection  and  on  carefully  thought-out  lines  by  the 
local  authorities  and  voluntary  agencies  to  whom  these  great 
responsibilities  are  entrusted  by  Parliament;  since  it 
furnishes  unrivalled  opportunities  to  the  earnest,  yet  wise, 
social  reformer  for  mitigating  some  of  the  deepest  physical 
injuries  that  beset  the  children  of  the  rising  generation,  par- 
ticularly in  "slum  areas,"  without  necessarily  involving  (if 
care  and  thought  be  exercised  in  its  administration)  undue 
intervention  by  the  State  in  the  sphere  of  parental  respon- 


304  APPENDIX 

sibilities  or  in  the  duties  and  influences  of  any  properly- 
ordered  home.  For  those  who  desire  information  as  to  the 
various  ways  in  which  this  most  important  and  difficult 
problem  has  in  recent  years  been  handled,  the  Reports  of 
the  Departmental  Committee  and  the  Select  Committee  lately 
issued  as  Blue  Books,  Cd.  2779,  price  is.  3d.  (by  post  If.  6d.) 
[Evidence,  Cd.  2784,  price  3.?.  (by  post  3s.  sd)]  and  H.C.  288, 
price  4lAd.  (by  post  6d.)  [or,  including  Evidence,  price  2s. 
4d.  (by  post  2s.  Sd.)]  will  be  found  extremely  useful;  and 
the  Board  of  Education  hope  that  some  preliminary  help  may, 
perhaps,  be  afforded  by  their  issue  of  the  following  summary 
of  the  contents  of  the  Act,  together  with  the  further  observa- 
tions upon  a  few  matters  appearing  to  require  special  notice, 
which  are  given  below. 

1.  The  Act  is  applicable  to  every  County  and  Borough 
and  Urban  District  Council  in  England  and  Wales  which  is 
an  Education  Authority  under  Part  III.  of  the  Education 
Act,  1902. 

2. — (a)  It  is  probable  that  in  most  places  where  a  Local 
Education  Authority  decide  to  make  use  of 
some  of  the  new  powers  given  them  by  the 
statute  they  will  find  it  expedient  to  act  through 
the  agency  of  one  of  the  voluntary  Associations 
or  Committees  which,  in  so  many  localities  are 
already  in  existence,  have  amassed  much  valuable 
experience,  and  are  doing  admirable  work  in 
the  provision  of  meals  for  school  children.  In 
order  that  the  Authority  may  in  these  cases 
supplement  the  work  of  such  a  Committee,  or 
grant  to  it  any  of  the  forms  of  aid  referred  to 
in   the  first  paragraph   of  this  letter,   arrange- 


APPENDIX  305 

ments  must  be  made  for  securing  adequate  repre- 
sentation of  the  Authority  upon  it  in  accordance 
with  the  Act    (unless  that  is  already  provided 
for   by   the    constitution   of   the    Committee    or 
Association).     This  may  be  done  either  directly 
by    appointing   one   or   more   members    of    the 
Authority   to   serve   on   the   Committee,   or   in- 
directly by  nominating  as  representatives  of  the 
Authority  outside  persons,  some  of  whom  might, 
if    desired,    be    selected    from    among    existing 
members  of  the  Committee. 
(&)  In  those  cases,  on  the  other  hand,  where  there  is 
no    sufficient   agency   already   in    existence,    the 
Local     Education     Authority     may     themselves 
establish  a   Committee   or  obtain  the  establish- 
ment of  one   in  any  manner   which  may  com- 
mend  itself,   subject   to   the   requirement   as  to 
representation  of  the  Authority. 
3.  These  Committees  for  the  supply  of  food  are  henceforth 
to  be  known  as  "School  Canteen  Committees"    (Section  1 
(a));    and  with  a  School  Canteen  Committee  thus  in  exist- 
ence,  whether   directly  established  by  the  Local   Education 
Authority  or  having  representatives  of  the  Local  Education 
Authority  upon  it,  three  valuable  consequences  will  follow 
from  the  adoption  of  the  Act: — 

(i)  The  Authority  will  have  power  to  make  such  pro- 
vision or  such  supplementary  provision  as  may  be 
found  necessary,  of  kitchens,  dining-rooms,  fur- 
niture, and  other  plant,  and  also  to  pay  persons 
to  organise,  cook  and  serve  the  meals.  No  doubt, 
as  heretofore,  much  of  this  work  will  be  done 

90 


306  APPENDIX 

by  unpaid  helpers — an  arrangement  which,  in  the 
case  of  those  who  assist  in  organisation,  or  man- 
agement, or  visiting  parents,  has  many  advantages 
if  such  helpers  are  of  the  right  type  and  can 
bring  to  the  work  the  benefits  of  regular  oppor- 
tunities for  keeping  in  useful  touch  with  the 
children  out  of  school  hours,  and  at  their  homes, 
(ii)  Hitherto  the  Board  of  Education  have  not  been 
able  to  permit  inclusion  of  kitchens  and  dining- 
rooms  in  public  elementary  schools  to  be  built 
with  loans  charged  upon  the  rates.  Henceforth, 
when  desired  by  the  Authority,  the  reasonable 
provision  of  such  adjuncts  will  be  passed  by  the 
Board  in  school  plans.  (Section  I  (b)). 
(iii)  One  grave  difficulty  in  the  way  of  the  proper 
organisation  of  school  meals  has  been  noticed  by 
the  Select  and  Inter-Departmental  Committees 
which  have  dealt  with  the  question  of  such  meals. 
There  has  been  no  method  by  which  it  could  be 
ensured  that  a  parent  whose  child  has  had  food 
should  pay  the  cost  of  the  meal,  when  he  is  well 
able  to  bear  the  expense.  This  difficulty  is  now 
removed.  By  Section  2  (1)  the  Authority  are 
directed  to  make  a  charge  to  the  parent  for  every 
meal  supplied  to  his  child,  and  in  the  event  of 
non-payment  it  becomes  their  statutory  duty,  un- 
less they  are  satisfied  that  the  parent  is  unable  to 
pay  by  reason  of  circumstances  other  than  his 
own  default,  to  recover  the  sum  so  charged  from 
him  by  summary  procedure  before  the  magistrates. 
4.  The  amount  of  the  charge  for  a  meal  is  not  prescribed 
by  the  statute,  nor  is  anything  laid  down  as  to  the  mode  of 


APPENDIX  307 

payment;  these  matters  are  left  to  the  discretion  of  those 
responsible  for  the  working  of  the  Act.  It  is  desirable  that, 
when  parents  are  in  a  position  to  pay  it,  the  Authority 
should  fix  such  a  charge  as  will  normally  cover,  not  only  the 
cost  of  the  actual  food,  but  also  the  cost  of  cooking  and 
serving.  They  will  also,  probably,  do  well,  wherever  pos- 
sible, to  insist  upon  prepayment.  Where  parents  cannot 
pay  the  full  cost,  they  will  often  be  able  to  pay  part  cost. 
For  reasons  which  need  not  be  here  stated,  it  is  better  that 
they  should  pay  whatever  their  means  permit,  rather  than 
that  meals  should  be  given  free  of  cost. 

5.  So  far  these  observations  have  been  confined  to  the 
ordinary  case  of  a  locality  where — with  or  without  assistance 
from  the  Local  Education  Authority  in  providing  rooms, 
plant  and  service — the  expenses  of  the  School  Canteen  Com- 
mittee as  regards  the  actual  provision  of  food  are  defrayed, 
without  any  recourse  to  the  rates,  from  such  sources  as 
parents'  payments,  voluntary  contributions  and  endowments. 
Under  this  system  there  will  generally  be  no  difficulty  in 
providing,  where  it  is  so  desired,  a  school  dinner  at  a 
fixed  price  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  attended  by  children 
for  whom,  by  reason  of  distance  from  the  school  or  because 
the  mother's  absence  makes  a  home  meal  difficult,  the  parent 
prefers  to  take  advantage  of  an  arrangement  similar  to  that 
now  in  operation  in  most  secondary  day  schools.  It  will 
also,  as  a  rule,  be  possible  to  provide  a  meal  free,  or  at  a 
nominal  cost,  for  poorer  children  during  periods  of  severe 
weather  or  industrial  distress,  or  to  meet  individual  cases 
of  temporary  want  of  employment. 

6.  There  will  remain,  however,  a  few  exceptional  cases 
where  the  money  available  from  the  sources  alluded  to  above 


308  APPENDIX 

is  insufficient  to  meet  the  cost  of  the  necessary  food.  For 
these,  provision  is  made  in  Section  3  of  the  Act  which  em- 
powers a  Local  Education  Authority  to  apply  to  the  Board 
of  Education  for  sanction  to  spend  money  to  a  limited 
amount  out  of  the  rates  in  the  purchase  of  food.  When  an 
Authority  desire  to  make  use  of  this  power  they  must 
first  pass  a  resolution  that  some  of  the  children  attending  an 
elementary  school  within  their  area  are  unable  by  reason 
of  lack  of  food  to  take  full  advantage  of  the  education 
provided  for  them,  and  they  must  further  ascertain  that 
funds  other  than  public  funds  are  not  available,  or  are 
insufficient  in  amount,  to  defray  the  cost  of  food  furnished 
in  meals  provided  under  the  Act.  Armed  with  this  resolu- 
tion and  information,  they  must  apply  to  the  Board  of 
Education  for  the  requisite  sanction.  Before  exercising  their 
power  under  this  section,  the  Board  will  consider  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  case  and  the  extent  of  the  emergency 
which  has  to  be  met,  and  will  also  require  to  know  what 
sum  the  Authority  consider  to  be  necessary  to  meet  so  much 
of  the  cost  of  the  provision  of  food  for  a  stated  period,  as 
cannot  be  paid  for  in  any  other  manner,  together  with  the 
grounds  for  that  view.  The  Board  do  not  propose  to  give 
any  permanent  sanction  or  even  one  extending  over  a  period 
of  years.  They  will  deal  in  each  case  with  the  particular 
emergency,  and  their  sanction  will,  as  a  rule,  be  limited  to 
the  raising  of  a  definite  sum  from  the  rates.  Should  such 
sum  prove  to  be  insufficient,  it  will  be  open  to  the  Authority  to 
apply  for,  and  to  the  Board  to  sanction,  the  raising  of  an  addi- 
tional sum,  and  so  on  from  time  to  time  as  occasion  may  re- 
quire, subject  always  to  the  condition  that  the  amounts  raised 
from  the  rates  for  this  purpose  in  the  area  of  the  Authority  in 


APPENDIX  309 

any  single  year  shall  never  exceed  the  produce  of  a  half- 
penny rate. 

7.  In  London  and  in  the  areas  under  Local  Education 
Authorities  for  County  Boroughs,  Boroughs  and  Urban 
Districts  the  limit  will  be  found  by  ascertaining  the  produce 
of  a  halfpenny  rate  for  the  whole  area,  but  for  areas  under 
County  Councils  the  mode  of  calculation  will  be  different ; 
here  the  halfpenny  rate  will  be  calculated  over  the  area  of 
the  parish  or  parishes  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Council, 
are  served  by  the  school  (Section  3).  It  should  be  noted, 
however,  that,  though  this  calculation  will  give  the  limit  of 
the  money  which  may  be  raised,  the  money  will  not  be 
actually  raised  over  the  area  mentioned.  Thus,  where  a 
halfpenny  rate  over  the  parish  or  parishes  served  by  the 
school  in  connection  with  which  a  meal  is  to  be  provided 
produces,  say,  20/.,  that  amount  will  be  actually  raised  on 
the  whole  elementary  education  area  of  the  County  Council 
and  not  solely  from  the  particular  parish  or  parishes 
(Section  5   (1)). 

8.  For  the  general  working  of  the  provisions  of  the  Act 
by  the  Local  Authorities  and  the  School  Canteen  Com- 
mittees, the  Board  of  Education  do  not  propose  to  issue  any 
Regulations,  but  to  leave  them  full  discretion,  within  the 
statutory  conditions,  for  dealing  with  the  necessarily  varied 
circumstances  of  the  different  areas,  or  of  different  schools 
within  any  one  area,  in  the  manner  best  suited  thereto.  There 
remain,  however,  a  few  points,  in  addition  to  those  named 
above,  to  which  the  Board  think  it  right  to  call  attention  in 
this  Circular. 

9.  First,  it  has  been  found  that  there  has  been  a  tendency 
in  some  of  the  places  where  the  work  of  providing  school 
meals  has  already  been  in  operation,  to  require  teachers  to 


310  APPENDIX 

take  part  in  the  management  and  supervision  of  school  meals 
as  part  of  their  ordinary  duties.  The  Board,  like  the  Com- 
mittees which  have  reported  on  this  matter,  recognise  fully 
the  admirable  work  which  has  been  done  in  this  direction  by 
teachers  all  through  the  country.  They  consider,  however, 
that  there  is  a  danger  that  too  much  of  the  teacher's  time 
and  energy  may  be  taken  up  in  this  serving  of  tables,  and 
they  hold  that,  while  teachers  should  not  be  forbidden  to 
take  part  in  work  which  is  to  them  of  absorbing  interest, 
their  help  should  be  used  as  sparingly  as  possible  and  that 
in  no  case  should  they  be  required  to  take  any  part  at  all. 
The  Act  accordingly  contains  the  following  special  provision 
on  this  matter: — 

"  No  teacher  seeking  employment  or  employed  in  a  public 
elementary  school  shall  be  required  as  part  of  his  duties  to 
supervise  or  assist,  or  to  abstain  from  supervising  or  assist- 
ing, in  the  provision  of  meals,  or  in  the  collection  of  the 
cost  thereof  (Section  6)." 

10.  Next,  the  Board  concur  also  with  the  various  Com- 
mittees in  holding  that  it  is  undesirable  that  meals  should 
be  served  in  rooms  habitually  used  for  teaching  purposes. 
The  first  use  for  school-rooms  and  class-rooms  is  for  teach- 
ing. Nothing,  therefore,  should  be  done  in  them  to  inter- 
fere with  their  proper  ventilation  before  and  after  school 
meetings,  or  to  cause  disorder  and  uncleanliness.  At  the 
same  time,  the  Board  recognise  that  in  some  cases  meals  can 
be  served  in  rooms  used  for  teaching  without  detriment  to 
such  use,  and  that  circumstances  may  arise  where  these  are 
the  only  rooms  available. 

11.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  Act  does  not  in  any  way 
prescribe  the  time  at  which  the  meal  should  be  served. 
Evidence  is  in  the  possession  of  the   Board   showing  that 


APPENDIX  311 

while,  perhaps,  a  midday  dinner  is  the  meal  which  usually 
meets  with  most  favour  from  the  existing  voluntary  agencies, 
there  are  many  which  for  good  reasons  consider  that  break- 
fast is  preferable.  Again,  there  is  an  opinion  prevalent  in 
many  quarters  that  a  school  meal  may  in  certain  schools 
advantageously  take  the  form  of  milk,  which  may  be  served 
either  at  the  opening  of  morning  school  or  in  the  course  of 
the  morning  at  the  recreation  interval. 

12.  The  Act  contains  no  specific  reference  to  the  Boards 
of  Guardians,  but  in  a  well-organised  system  which  attempts 
to  provide  free  or  cheap  meals  for  destitute  children,  it  is 
obvious  that  touch  must  be  kept  with  the  Guardians,  and  in- 
formation in  their  possession  or  at  their  disposal  must  be 
used.  As  a  rule  it  would  be  desirable  that  there  should  be 
one  or  more  Guardians  on  the  School  Canteen  Committee. 
Where  there  is  in  the  locality  a  branch  of  the  Society  for 
the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Children,  the  help  of  that 
Society  may  also  Tbe  enlisted  with  great  advantage,  and  the 
same  remark  applies  to  other  persons  and  agencies  whose 
work  brings  them  into  intimate  relation  with  the  life  and 
needs  of  the  children  at  our  elementary  schools  and  their 
parents,  such  as  district  visitors,  health  visitors,  and  the  like. 

13.  Lastly,  when  a  system  of  medical  inspection  of  school 
children  such  as  already  exists  under  several  Local  Educa- 
tion Authorities  has  been  established,  the  School  Canteen 
Committee,  so  far  as  its  operations  are  concerned  with  under- 
fed, ill-nourished  or  destitute  children,  should  work  in 
intimate   connection   with   the   school   medical  officer. 

I  have  the  honour  to  be, 
Sir, 
Your  obedient  Servant, 

Robert  £.  Morant. 
To  the  Local  Education  Authority. 


312  APPENDIX 

APPENDIX  C 

Form  Used  by  the  City  of  Bradford  Education  Committee 
in  Order  to  Ascertain  the  Circumstances  of  the 
Families  of  the  Children  for  Whom  Application  is 
Made  for  the  Provision  of  Meals. 

city  of  bradford  education  committee 

Provision  of  Meals  Act,  1906 

Name  of  Child  or  Children 


School 


Address 


Name  of  Father Age Occupation. 

Employer    

Name  of  Mother Age Occupation. 

Employer    


Name  of  each  other  member  of  family,  age  and  occupation 


Weekly  wages  when  full  time £ s d. 

Average  income  for  last  four  weeks £ s d. 

Total   income   

Deduct   rent    

Net  income   


APPENDIX  313 


If  Father  out  of  work,  how  long  so  ? 

If  Father  sick,  how  long  so,  and  by  whom  attended?. 


If  in  receipt  of  Relief,  state  amount. 
Character  of  Parent   


Remarks,   especially  as  to  any  other  sources  of  income  or 
expenditure,  e.g.,  Doctor's  Bills,  Insurance,  etc 


Date Visitor 

At  the  expiration  of  each  month  an  entry  as  to  change  of 
circumstances  should  be  made  below: 


Date Date Date 

...  Date Date 

Date Date Date. . . . 

...  Date Date 

Submitted  to  Committee  on 

RESULT 

APPENDIX  D 

Regulations  for  the  School  Breakfasts  in  Stuttgart 
i.  In   accordance  with  an   order  of  the   City   Council   a 
warm  breakfast  is  provided  for  school  children  at  one  centre 
in  every  public  school  district,  which  shall  be  served  either 
free  or  at  cost,  as  follows : 


314  APPENDIX 

2.  Only  those  children  may  participate  in  the  breakfasts 
who  are  designated  after  application  to  the  special  commis- 
sion. Only  those  can  receive  a  meal  free  whose  necessity 
is  assured. 

3.  The  application  must  be  made  by  the  parents  or 
guardians  of  the  child  through  a  teacher  and  must  include 
answers  to  certain  questions,  such  as  whether  the  meal  is 
desired  at  cost  or  free;  what  the  daily  income  of  the  family 
is  and  how  great  the  number  of  children  under  16.  If 
the  information  given  is  satisfactory  a  further  investigation 
is  not  necessary.  For  this  purpose  the  class  teacher  will  give 
to  each  child  a  questionnaire  in  a  closed  envelope  which  will 
include  a  return  slip.  The  teacher  must  add  to  this  in- 
formation a  statement  as  to  the  physical  condition  of  the 
children  and  any  points  omitted  by  the  parents.  This  card 
is  then  forwarded  to  the  commission  after  passing  through 
the  hands  of  the  school  superintendent.  In  so  far  as  the 
information  given  is  unsatisfactory  or  insufficient  the  com- 
mission may  supplement  it  by  an  investigation  by  charity 
officers,  who  in  these  instances  are  not  to  be  regarded  as 
acting  under  the  Poor  Law,  but  as  special  school  officers. 
These  inquiry  officers  are  held  responsible  for  the  most 
careful  investigations  possible  and  must  report  these  to  the 
commission.  A  record  of  each  case,  including  its  final  dis- 
position, must  be  kept. 

4.  The  permits  for  free  or  paid  meals  are  valid  for  any 
length  of  time  which  the  City  Council  may  decide.  During 
this  time  new  permits  are  issued  only  to  those  paying  and  to 
children  who  may  have  newly  entered  the  school.  Only  in 
very  special  cases  may  free  permits  be  given  to  other  chil- 


APPENDIX  315 

dren  during  this  time.     Permits  given  in  these  latter  cases 
begin  with  the  first  school  day  of  the  next  week. 

5.  Little  booklets  containing  coupons  are  issued  to  the 
children.  Each  coupon  entitles  a  child  to  a  breakfast.  The 
coupons  are  to  be  given  every  Saturday  morning  for  the 
coming  week.  The  class  teacher  is  to  have  charge  of  both 
the  free  permits  and  the  coupons  that  are  paid  for.  45  pf. 
(11  cents)  is  charged  for  the  book  of  6  coupons.  This 
coupon  is  good  only  in  the  feeding  centre  in  the  district 
where  the  child  belongs  and  is  not  to  be  transferred  to 
another  child.  It  is  not  permitted  to  offer  more  than  one 
coupon  in  one  day. 

6.  The  coupons  must  be  gotten  by  the  class  teacher  or 
principal  every  month  according  to  the  apparent  number  who 
will  need  them.  An  account  is  to  be  kept  by  the  teacher  or 
principal  of  every  child  receiving  these  coupons  with  the 
date.  The  amounts  received  for  the  bought  coupons  are  to 
be  reckoned  up  the  first  of  every  month.  The  free  coupons 
are  to  have  as  a  distinguishing  mark  a  heavy  line  under  the 
first  few  words,  but  this  mark  is  to  remain  absolutely  un- 
known to  the  children. 

7.  In  case  a  child  is  removed  from  one  school  district  to 
another  the  head  teacher  will  transfer  his  name  to  the  new 
school  lists,  indicating  whether  or  not  he  is  to  have  coupons 
and  of  what  sort.  If  he  moves  out  of  Greater  Stuttgart 
the  coupons  that  have  not  been  used  shall  be  returned  to  the 
class  teacher.  The  money  shall  be  refunded  on  the  coupons 
that  have  been  paid  for.  These  returned  coupons  are  to  be 
delivered  to  the  central  school  authority  every  month. 

8.  Every  Saturday  the  daily  amount  of  milk  and  bread  for 


316  APPENDIX 

the  various  feeding  centres  shall  be  made  out  for  the  coming 
week  according  to  the  number  of  children  who  are  enrolled 
to  receive  them.  In  the  event  of  the  school  being  closed  for 
extraordinary  reasons  such  as  vacations  given  on  account 
of  conferences,  etc.,  or  epidemics  of  sickness,  the  principal 
of  each  school  shall  notify  the  central  school  authorities  so 
that  the  day's  supply  of  rations  may  be  changed  in  accordance. 

9.  The  director  in  each  feeding  centre  must  be  responsible 
for  having  the  milk  and  bread  ready  to  be  served,  at  the 
earliest  one  hour,  at  the  latest  three-quarters  of  an  hour 
before  the  beginning  of  school.  The  director  of  the  feeding 
centre  must  twice  each  month,  on  the  15th,  and  on  the  last 
day,  forward  to  the  school  authorities  an  account  of  the 
amount  of  food  that  he  receives  each  day.  He  must  also 
give  a  daily  receipt  to  the  contractor  who  delivers  the  goods. 

10.  The  cans  and  baskets  in  which  the  milk  and  bread 
are  delivered  must  remain  at  the  feeding  centre  during 
breakfast.  The  milk  must  be  kept  so  that  it  does  not  get 
cold  before  serving.  Any  bread  and  milk  that  may  remain 
is  to  be  given  back  to  the  contractors.  An  account  is  to  be 
kept  of  this  and  the  cost  deducted  and  placed  on  credit. 

11.  Any  delay  in  the  delivery  of  the  food  must  be  reported 
at  once  to  the  school  authorities.  Likewise  any  other  failure 
to  carry  out  orders,  such  as  food  being  delivered  too  early 
or  too  late,  not  enough  being  delivered,  milk  not  being 
sufficiently  warm,  and  so  forth,  is  to  be  reported  to  the 
contractor  at  once,  by  telephone  if  possible,  so  that  no  delay 
shall  be  caused.  Any  broken  contracts  are  to  be  reported  at 
once  to  the  school  authorities. 

12.  The  person  in  charge  of  each  feeding  centre  is  held 


APPENDIX  317 

responsible  for  having  the  proper  utensils  and  furniture 
ready  each  morning  and  for  removing  and  cleaning  them 
after  breakfast. 

13.  The  breakfast  is  to  be  served  during  the  half  hour 
before  the  beginning  of  the  morning  session,  the  hour  of 
which  varies  as  follows:  The  spring  and  the  summer  vaca- 
tion at  7  o'clock;  after  the  vacation  till  the  15th  of 
November  at  8  o'clock;  from  November  16th  to  February 
14th  at  8.30;  from  February  15  to  the  end  of  the  school 
year  at  8  o'clock. 

Each  child  shall  receive  on  presenting  its  coupon  one- 
quarter  of  a  liter  of  milk  and  a  roll.  The  milk  must 
be  kept  in  the  warm  cans  until  immediately  before  serving 
and  put  into  serving  pitchers  only  at  the  last  minute.  The 
coupons  received  must  be  placed  each  day  in  special  numbered 
and  dated  envelopes  ready  to  forward  twice  a  month  to  the 
school  authorities. 

14.  Immediately  after  breakfast  all  the  dishes  and  other 
utensils  used  at  breakfast  are  to  be  washed  in  hot  water 
and  rinsed  with  cold,  and  the  furniture  in  the  room  cleaned. 
The  manager  will  be  held  responsible  for  the  utmost  clean- 
liness in  all  details  of  service. 

15.  A  special  place  must  be  provided  for  the  storage  of 
utensils. 

16.  The  children  must  not  remain  in  the  centre  any 
longer  than  is  necessary  to  eat  their  breakfast.  They  must 
maintain  order,  be  quiet  and  follow  the  directions  of  the 
person  in  charge.  Children  who  do  not  obey  may  have  their 
privilege  withheld  by  the  commission  for  a  longer  or  a 
shorter  time. 


318  APPENDIX 

17.  If  teachers  are  present  at  the  breakfast  they  shall 
have  the  supervision,  otherwise  the  house  master  of  the 
school,  or  in  case  he  is  not  present  the  manager  shall  be 
held  responsible  for  keeping  order  during  breakfast.  It  is 
preferable  to  have  the  supervision  done  by  a  teacher.  Where 
there  are  several  centres  for  one  district  the  house  master, 
if  he  himself  is  not  in  charge  of  one  centre  shall  go  about 
and  inspect  each  centre  in  turn. 


APPENDIX  E 

Menus  of  seventeen  dinners  served  on  alternate  days  in 
the  schools  of  the  city  of  Bradford,  England.  The  materials, 
the  amount,  the  number  of  Protein  and  Fat  grams  and  the 
cost,  wholesale  and  retail,  is  given  in  each  case. 

Dinner  No.  I. 

Green  Pea  and  Vegetable  Soup  (clear) ;  Boiled  Jam  Roly-Poly. 

Material  Quantity  £^£         (*«a) 

Peas 3     oz.  324  12 

Carrot 1%  oz.  3  2 

Turnip iM  oz.  6  1 

Onion iK  oz.  6  1 

Bread iM  oz.  60  9 

Flour 1%  oz.  75  6 

Nutter  Suet %  oz.  49  196 

Jam K  oz.  1 

Wholesale  Price — 2  cts.  524  227 

Retail  "   — 2.5  cts.  (34  grams)     (15  grams) 


APPENDIX  319 
Dinner  No.  II. 

Brown  Haricot  Soup,  Dumplings;  Baked  Jam  Roll. 

Materia!                         Ouantity  gffig  Jfa 

Beans i%  oz.  133  13 

Carrot %  oz.  1  1 

Onion 1     oz.  9  2 

Flour %  oz.  36  3 

Nutter  Suet K  oz.  22  88 

Milk  Powder ^  oz.  81  2 

Bread 1%  oz.  60  9 

Flour 1%  oz.  75  6 

Margarine %  oz.  4  279 

Jam %  oz.  1 

Wholesale  Price — 2  cts.  422  403 
Retail           "     — 2.3  cts.                             (27  grams)   (26  grams) 

Dinner  No.  III. 

Lentil  Soup ;  Ginger  Pudding  and  Sweet  Sauce. 

Material                           Quantity  Protein  Pat 

Lentils 3     oz.  305  26 

Carrot 1     oz.  2  1 

Turnip 1     oz.  4  1 

Onion 1     oz.  6  1 

Bread iK  oz.  60  9 

Flour 1%  oz.  59  5 

Bread  Crumbs ^  oz.  20  3 

Nutter  Suet %  oz.  49  196 

Golden  Syrup 1     oz. 

Ginger }{6  oz. 

Baking  Powder Xe  oz. 

Milk fa  oz.  24  30 

Margarine %  oz.  .  .  62 

Sugar 1K1  oz. 

Wholesale  Price — 2.45  cts.  529  334 
Retail           "     — 3.27  cts.                       (34  grams)  (22  grams) 


320  APPENDIX 

Dinner  No.  IV. 

Savory  Batter,  Gravy  and  Beans;  Rice  and  Currants. 

Material                            Quantity  Protein             Pat 

Meat i     oz.  81             89 

Milk K  oz.  35              44 

Flour 1     oz.  50               4 

Egg Koz.  23              18 

Beans iH  oz.  150              15 

Butter %  oz.  ...             46 

Bread i^  oz.  60               9 

Milk K  pint .  35              44 

Rice #  oz.  17 

Sugar }i  oz. 

Currants  and  Sultanas K  oz.  2               2 

Wholesale  Price — 2. sets.  453            191 

Retail           "     — 3.1  cts.                          (29  grams)    (12  grams) 

Dinner  No.  V. 

Baked  Lentil  Savory,  Green  Peas  and  Bean  Gravy;  Milk 
Pudding  and  Stewed  Fruit. 

Material                            Quantity  Protein              Fat 

Lentils %  oz.  74               6 

Rice %  oz.  8 

Potato #  oz.  4 

Bread  Crumbs %  oz.  20               3 

Onion %  oz.  4 

Egg &oz.  8                4 

Margarine %  oz.  ...              62 

Peas iK  oz.  162               6 

Beans M  oz.  50               5 

Bread 1%  oz.  60               9 

Milk K  pint.  70              88 

Rice H  oz.  17 

Fruit 3     oz.  4 

Sugar %  oz. 

Wholesale  Price— 2.5  cts.  481            185 

Retail          "     —3.4  cts.                        (31  grams)  (12  grams) 


APPENDIX  321 

Dinner  No.  VI. 

Yorkshire  Cheese  Pudding,  Peas  and  Bean  Gravy;  Buttered 
Rice  and  Sugar. 

Material                              Quantity  Protein  Fat 

Milk %  pint.  35  44 

Flour 1     oz.  50  4 

Egg X  oz.  23  18 

Cheese 1     oz.  122  162 

Peas 1%  oz.  162  6 

Beans H  oz.  50  5 

Bread 1%  oz.  60  9 

Rice %  oz.  25 

Sugar ^  oz. 

Margarine K  oz.  1  93 

Wholesale  Price — 2.54  cts.  528  341 
Retail           "     — 3  cts.                             (34  grams)    (22  grams) 

Dinner  No.  VII. 

Cornish  Pie  (vegetarian),  Green  Peas  and  Bean  Gravy;  Blanc- 
mange and  Jam. 

Material                           Quantity  Protein  Fat 

Potato 2%   OZ.  20  I 

Apple 1     oz.  1  1 

Onion 2     oz.  12  2 

Lentils %  oz.  74  6 

Flour 1%  oz.  87  7 

Margarine %  oz.  3  279 

Peas iK  oz.  162  6 

Beans K  oz.  50  5 

Bread iK  oz.  60  9 

Milk %  pint.  46  58 

Cornflour %  oz.  8  1 

Sugar %  oz. 

Jam K  oz.  1 

Wholesale  Price — 2.62  cts.  524  375 
Retail           "     —3.29  cts.                       (34  grams)  (24  grams) 

21 


322  APPENDIX 

Dinner  No.  VIII. 

Cheese  and  Lentil  Savory,  Bean  Gravy;  Milk  Pudding  and 
Fruit. 

Material                            Quantity  Protein  Fat 

Cheese i     oz.  122  162 

Lentils %  oz.  68  6 

Onion %  oz.  3  1 

Bread  Crumbs %  oz.  13  2 

Margarine %  oz.  62 

Beans %  oz.  50  4 

Bread 1%  oz.  60  9 

Milk #  pint.  70  88 

Rice K  oz.  17 

Sugar %  oz. 

Fruit 3     oz.  4 

Wholesale  Price — 2.71  cts.  407  334 
Retail           "     — 3.58  cts.                        (26  grams)  (22  grams) 

Dinner  No.  IX. 

Baked  Cheese  and  Potato  Pie,  Peas  and  Bean  Gravy;  Bread 
and  Fruit  Pudding. 

Material                            Quantity  Protein  Fat 

Cheese 1     oz.  122  162 

Potato 3     oz.  24  1 

Bread  Crumbs M  oz.  20  3 

Egg %  oz.  15  12 

Rice Y*  oz.  9 

Margarine %  oz.  124 

Peas 1%  oz.  162  6 

Beans %  oz.  50  4 

Bread 1%  oz.  60  9 

Bread 1     oz.  40  6 

Fruit 3     oz.  4 

Sugar K  oz. 

Wholesale  Price — 2.77  cts.  506  327 

Retail           "     — 3.59  cts.                        (33  grams)  (21  grams) 


APPENDIX  S2S 

Dinner  No.  X. 

Meat  Hash,  Savory  Balls  and  Rice;  Stewed  Fruit. 

Material                            Quantity  Protein  Fat 

Beef 3     oz.  243  26 

Onion 1%  oz.  9  2 

Carrot 1     oz.  2  1 

Turnip 1     oz.  4  1 

Flour  and  Bread  Crumbs %  oz.  41  5 

Nutter  Suet K  oz.  16  66 

Rice %  oz.  26  1 

Bread iK  oz.  60  9 

Fruit 3     oz.  4 

Sugar #  oz. 

Wholesale  Price — 2.9  cts.  405  11 1 
Retail            "     — 4.5  cts.                           (26  grams)  (7  grams) 


Dinner  No.  XI. 

Cottage  Pie  (Meat  with  Crust),  Green  Peas  and  Gravy;  Stewed 

Fruit. 

Material                            Quantity  Protein  Fat 

Beef 2     oz.  162  17 

Potato 3     oz.  24  1 

Onion 1     oz.  6  1 

Flour 1%  oz.  87  7 

Margarine %  oz.  3  279 

Peas i#  oz.  162  6 

Bread 1%  oz.  60  9 

Fruit 3     oz.  4 

Sugar %  oz. 

Wholesale  Price — 3  cts.  508  320 
Retail           "     — 4.27  cts.                        (33  grams)  (2 1  grams) 


SU  APPENDIX 

Dinner  No.  XII. 

Scotch  Barley  Broth;  Rhubarb  Tart. 

Material                           Quantity  Protein  Fat 

Beef 2%  oz.  202  22 

Carrot 1     oz.  2  1 

Turnip 1     oz.  4  1 

Onion 1)2  oz.  6  1 

Barley %  oz.  14  3      j 

Bread iH  oz.  60  9     ( 

Flour 1%  oz.  75  6 

Margarine %  oz.  4  279 

Fruit 3    oz.  4 

Sugar #  oz. 

Wholesale  Price — 2.9  cts.  371  322 
Retail           "    —4.2  cts.                            (24  grams)     (21  grams) 

Dinner  No.  XIII. 

Fish  and  Potato  Pie,  Green  Peas,  Lemon  Sauce;  Blancmange 
and  Jam. 

Material                           Quantity  Protein  Fat 

Fish 4     oz.  66  5 

Potato 5     oz.  48  2 

Margarine %  oz.  74 

Flour %  oz.  10  1 

Milk %  pint.  14  18 

Lemon &  oz. 

Peas i#  oz.  162  6 

Bread 1^  oz.  60  9 

Cornflour K  oz.  8  1 

Milk %  pint.  46  58 

Sugar %  oz. 

Jam #  oz. 

Wholesale  Price — 3  cts.  414  174 
Retail           "     — 4.46  cts.                        (27  grams)  (1 1  grams) 


APPENDIX  325 
Dinner  No.  XIV. 

Meat  and  Potato  Hash,  Beans  and  Gravy;  Milk  Pudding  and 

Fruit. 

Material                           Quantity  Protein  Fat 

Beef 1%  oz.  122  13 

Potato 4     oz.  32  1 

Carrot %  oz. 

Onions iK  oz.  9  1 

3eans 1%  oz.  147  12 

Margarine %  oz.  46 

3read iK  oz.  60  9 

Milk %  pint.  70  88 

Rice H  oz.  17 

Sugar %  oz. 

Fruit 3     oz-  4 

Wholesale  Price — 3  cts.  461  170 

Retail           "     —4.35  cts.                        (30  grams)  (11  grams) 

Dinner  No.  XV. 

Meat  Pudding,  Cabbage  and  Gravy;  Boiled  Rice  and  Currants. 

Material                            Quantity  Protein  Fat 

Meat 2     oz.  162  17 

Carrot 1     oz.  2  1 

Turnip 1     oz.  4  1 

Onion 1%  oz.  9  2 

Flour iK  oz.  75  6 

Nutter  Suet K  oz.  49  196 

Cabbage %  oz. 

Bread iK  oz.  60  9 

Rice K  oz.  17  1 

Currants  and  Sultanas %  oz.  2  2 

Sugar }i  oz. 

Milk %  pint.  35  44 

Wholesale  Price — 3. 13  cts.  4J5  285 

Retail           "     —4.30  cts.                         (27  grams)  (19  grams) 


326  APPENDIX 


Dinner  No.  XVI. 

Rice  and  Cheese  Savory,  Cabbage  and  Bean  Gravy;  Whole- 
meal Cake. 

Material                              Quantity  Protein  Fat 

Milk %  pint.  70  88 

Rice iK  oz.  52  1 

Cheese 1     oz.  122  162 

Margarine ^  oz.  2  186 

Beans %  oz.  50  5 

Cabbage %  oz. 

Bread 1%  oz.  60  9 

Wholemeal 1%.  oz.  60  9 

Currants  and  Sultanas %  oz.  8  7 

Sugar %  oz. 

Margarine %e  oz.  69 

Wholesale  Price — 3.42  cts.  424  536 
Retail           "     — 4. 10  cts.                        (28  grams)  (35  grams) 

Dinner  No.  XVII. 

Shepherd's  Pie  (Meat  and  Potato),  Gravy;  Milk  Pudding, 
Stewed  Fruit. 

Material                            Quantity  Protein  Fat 

Beef 3     oz.  243  26 

Potato 6     oz.  48  3 

Onion 1     oz.  6  1 

Bread iK  oz.  60  9 

Rice K  oz.  17 

Sugar %  oz. 

Milk %  pint.  70  88 

Fruit 3     oz.  4 

Wholesale  Price — 3.49  cts.  448  127 
Retail           "     — 5. 12  cts.                        (29  grams)  (8  grams) 


APPENDIX  327 


APPENDIX  F 

Specimen  Recipes  of  Hot  Dishes  Served  in  Philadelphia 
Schools.  These  Recipes  are  Kept  on  File  at  Each 
Kitchen. 

Cream  of  Pea  Soup 

Four  and  one-half  pounds  dried  peas;  ten  tablespoonfuls, 
or  one-quarter  pound  butter;  seven  quarts  milk;  one  quart 
water  (rinse  bottles)  ;  twenty  tablespoonfuls  or  one  and  one- 
quarter  cups  flour;  salt.  (Serves  60.  Portion,  two-thirds 
of  a  cup.) 

Soak  peas  day  before.  Drain  and  wash.  Put  on  to  cook 
in  large  quantity  of  water.  Cook  until  tender,  adding  salt 
when  nearly  done.  Make  white  sauce  in  agate  sauce-pan 
(care  or  will  burn).  Do  not  allow  to  cook  directly  over  fire 
long  enough  to  boil  after  each  addition;  but  prepare  long 
enough  ahead  to  cook  in  double  boiler  about  three-quarters 
of  an  hour  before  adding  peas.  Drain  peas  and  add  to  white 
sauce  about  one-half  hour  before  serving. 

Rice  Pudding 

One  quart  rice ;  one  quart  sugar ;  four  quarts  water ;  eight 
quarts  milk;  four  teaspoonfuls  salt.  (To  serve  48.  Por- 
tion, two-thirds  of  a  cup.) 

Wash  and  drain  the  rice,  add  with  sugar  and  salt  to  the 
boiling  salted  water.  Cook  directly  over  the  heat  ten  minutes. 
Heat  milk  in  the  double  boiler  and  cook  with  the  rice,  etc., 
at  least  one  hour — better  two. 

To  vary  monotony,  sprinkle  cinnamon  or  nutmeg  over 
the  pudding  or  use  one-half  pound  seedless  raisins  or  one 
dozen  dates  cut  in  small  pieces. 


328  APPENDIX 

Com  Chowder 

Eight  cans  corn;  eight  quarts  diced  potatoes;  one-half 
pound  salt  pork;  salt;  eight  onions;  eight  quarts  milk;  six- 
teen crackers;  pepper.  (To  serve  95.  Portion,  two-thirds 
of  a  cup.) 

Put  milk  and  corn  on  in  large  double  boiler  to  heat.  Put 
water  on  in  which  to  boil  potatoes.  They  must  be  cooked  in 
relays  in  order  to  get  ready  in  time.  Try  out  pork,  add 
onions,  and  brown.  Parboil  potatoes  five  minutes.  Then  add 
to  fat  and  onions  with  enough  boiling  water  to  prevent 
burning.  Cook  until  tender  and  add  the  whole  to  the  milk 
and  corn.  Season.  About  five  minutes  before  serving,  add 
the  broken  crackers. 

Cocoa 

Three  cups  cocoa;  three  cups  sugar;  four  quarts  boiling 
water;  twelve  quarts  milk.  (To  serve  96.  Portion,  two- 
thirds  of  a  cup.) 

Mix  the  cocoa  and  water  together  and  cook  directly  over 
the  heat  ten  minutes,  stirring  constantly  to  prevent  scorching. 
Add  it  to  the  heated  milk  in  which  the  sugar  has  been  dis- 
solved and  cook  one-half  hour  in  the  double  boiler.  Beat 
well  before  serving. 

Bean  Soup 

Four  quarts  or  five  and  five-eighths  pounds  beans;  one 
pound  salt  pork  (cut  in  pieces)  or  three  pounds  shin  bone; 
two  small  onions;  two  bunches  potherbs;  twelve  to  sixteen 
quarters  boiling  water;  three  tablespoonfuls  salt;  pepper; 
two  stalks  celery,  if  cheap.  (To  serve  72.  Portion,  three- 
quarters  of  a  cup.) 


APPENDIX  329 

Pick  over  and  thoroughly  wash  the  beans.  Soak  them  in 
cold  water  over  night.  Drain  and  rinse  them,  then  add  the 
boiling  water,  part  of  which  is  stock  from  the  meat.  Add 
the  seasoning  and  cook  until  the  beans  are  thoroughly  soft. 

First  day,  soak  beans;  second  day,  start  cooking;  third 
day,  finish  cooking  and  serve.  In  schools  where  the  Jewish 
children  are  very  orthodox,   substitute  butter  for  meat. 


330 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX    G 
Dietaries  for  Children  of  School  Age  Show- 
ing School  Meals  as  Supplements  to 
Other  Meals,  and  Daily  Cost 
and  Food  Value* 

1.   Dietary  for  Child  6  Years  of  Age 

Assumed  weight,  44  lb.         Protein,  50-60  grams ;  1650  Calories 

BREAKFAST 

Oatmeal,  Top  Milk  and  Two  Teaspoonfuls  of  Sugar 

Poached  Egg-on  Toast 

Toast  and  Butter  Glass  of  Milk 


PENNY  LUNCH 

Cup  of  Milk  and  Cracker 

DINNER 

Cream  of  Pea  Soup 

Baked  Potato 

Breadand  Butter 

Creamed  Carrots 

SUPPER 

Glass  of  Milk 

Steamed  Rice  and  Prunes 

\ 

Zweibach 

Food 

Amount           Protein,  gtam* 

Calories 

Cost 

Oatmeal 

%  cup               4.20 

100 

$0,030 

Bread 

4     slices            9.40 

300 

0.017 

Butter 

1     tablespoon    0.1,3 

100 

0.010 

Egg 

1                         8.15 

90 

0.030 

Milk 

%  qt               24.36 

510 

0.060 

Sugar 

2   tablespoons    0.00 

100 

0.000 

Pea  Soup 

%  cup               3.86 

100 

0.020 

Potato 

1    medium          1.32 

75 

0.005 

Carrots,  Creamed 

Y2  cup               2.57 

100 

0.010 

Rice 

2    tablespoons    2.28 

100 

0.005 

Prunes 

5                         0.70 

100 
1675 

0.010 

Totals 

56.97 

$0.1.73 

Nutritive  ratio  1  :G 

♦Prepared  by  Normal  Domestic  Science  Department,  Drexel  Institute, 
Philadelphia. 


APPENDIX 


2.   Dietary  for  Child  8  to  10  Years  of  Age 

Assumed  weight,  60  lb.  Protein,  60  grams  ;  1760  Calories 

BREAKFAST 

Cream  of  Wheat  with  Dates 

Top  Milk 


Glass  of  Milk 

Bread  and  Butter 

PENNY  LUNCH 

Cocoa  and  Cracker 

DINNER 

Hamburg  Steak 

Mashed  Potato 

Bread  and  Butter 

Creamed  Onions 

Cup  Custard 

SUPPER 

Milk  Toast 

Gingerbread 

Baked  Apple 

Pood 

Amount               Protein,  gfnmx 

Calorie* 

Cost 

Cream  of  Wheat 

Mi  cup 

3.04 

100.0 

10.008 

Dates 

5 

0.60 

100.0 

0.008 

Bread 

5     slices 

13.20 

377.0 

0.020 

Milk 

1     pint 

16.09 

337.5 

0.040 

Cocoa 

Kqt 

4.55 

124.0 

0.010 

Butter 

2     tablesps. 

0.26 

200.0 

0.020 

Steak 

2     oz. 

12.50 

65.0 

0.025 

Creamed  Onions 

4 

3.20 

100.0 

0.005 

Potato 

M  cup 

0.65 

25.0 

0.005 

Cup  Custard 

%cup 

4.40 

100.0 

0.040 

Apple 

1 

0.25 

75.0 

0.010 

Gingerbread 

V%  oz. 

3.00 

50.0 

0.010 

Totals  61.74       1653.5 

Nutritive  ratio.  1:5:7 


10.201 


332 


APPENDIX 


3.  Dietary  for  Child  10  to  12  Years  of  Age 

Supplementary  to  Permy  and  Three-cent  Lunches 

Assumed  weight,  80  lb.  Protein,  70  grams  ;  1800  Calories 

BREAKFAST 

Corn  Meal  Mush 

Milk  and  Sugar 

Glass  of  Milk  Bread  and  Syrup 

PENNY  LUNCH 

Cocoa  and  Cracker 

THREE-CENT  LUNCH 

Bean  Soup 

Peaches 

Bread 

DINNER 
Mutton  Stew  with  Vegetables  Bread 

Rice  Pudding  Glass  of  Milk 


Pood 

Amount 

Protein 

Calories 

Cost 

Corn  Meal 

3     tablesps. 

7.26 

200.0 

$0,005 

Bread 

5     slices 

13.20 

377.0 

0.025 

Milk 

1     pint 

16.09 

337.5 

0.040 

Cocoa 

%  quart 

4.55 

124.0 

0.010 

Bean  Soup 

H  quart 

9.91 

1&.0 

0.010 

Peaches 

2    halves 

2.45 

145.0 

0.010 

Mutton  Stew 

1    cup 

15.00 

200.0 

0.060 

Rice  Pudding 

%cup 

3.16 

164.0 

0.010 

Sugar 

3     tablesps. 
Totals 

0.00 
68.62 

200.0 

0.010 

1941.5 

$0,170 

Nutritive  ratio  1 :6 

INDEX 


Absences,  decreased,  139 

discouraged,  103 
Accounting,    see    Administra- 
tion Records,  Cost,  154ft*. 
Adenoids,  227,  231 
Administration  (see  Organiza- 
tion,   Support),    45,    54ff.f 
6off.,  66,  67,  7ifL,  77ff.,  8off., 
93ff.,     100,     I07ff.,     ii4ff., 
I30ff.,  I38ff.,  143,  145.  146, 
147,  I5iff.,  1645.,  168,  173, 
174,  177,  i84ff. 
Adulteration  of  foods  bought 

in  streets,  248ff. 
Advisory  Board,  164 
Agriculture ,  Division  of  .Univer- 
sity of  Minnesota,  178 
United  States  Department 
of,  240 
Airy,  Dr.,  on  voluntary  feeding 

societies,  32ff. 
Albuminuria,  228 
Alcohol,  cause  of  malnutrition, 
214 
taxes  on,  134 
use  of  by  German  chil- 
dren, 122 
Allied  movements,  74,  78,  102, 

127 
Alsace-Lorraine,  118 
America,    open    air    schools, 
188-195 


America,  school  lunches  in,  18, 
147-183 
underfeeding,  196-210 
Amount  of  food,  see  Dietaries, 

Food  Values,  Menus 
Anaemia     (see    Malnutrition), 

extent,  symptoms,  etc.,2i6ff. 
Anaemic,   classes  for  children, 

i84fL,  191 
Analysis,  see  Dietaries,  Food 

Values,  Menus 
Angers,  pioneer  town  in  France, 

93 

Anthropometric  (see  Measure- 
ments), British  Association, 
69,  222 

Appetites,  loss  of,  1246:. 
training  of,  50,  73 

Applications  for  meals,  55, 135, 
312,  3H 

Attendance,  school,  16,  7  iff., 
103,  132,  140 

Attention,  132,  167 

Attic  space,  180 

Atwater  standard  of  diet,  205, 

235 
Austria,  143 
Ayres,  Leonard  P.,  68,  226 

Baden,  118 
Belgium,  145,  263 
Berlin,  101,  122 

333 


334 


INDEX 


Bibliography,  263-297 
Birkenhead,  70 
Birmingham,  32,  39s.,  70 
Blood,  see  Anaemia 
Boston,  meals  in,  1645. 

open  air  schools,  i88ff. 

underfeeding,  203 
Bowditch,  measurements,  222 
Box-office,  87 
Boys,     relative     height     and 

weight  table,  223 
Bradford,  England,  meals  in, 

37.  46ff- 
menus  in,  253s.,  318ft. 
record  blank,  312 
Breakfasts,   children  without, 
i2off.,  I96ff. 
home,  I2iff.,  196ft. 
school,       see       Different 
Countries'  Menus,  etc. 
Breath,  bad,  212 
Bristol,  England,  70 
Brooklyn,  148 
Buffalo,  181,  200 

Caisses  des  £coles,  15,  77ft"., 

81,  84,  134 
Calories    (see    Food    Values, 
Dietaries,  etc.),    defini- 
tion, 239 
for  one  cent,  155,  166,  150 
numbers  needed,  241, 243 
use  of,  2395. 
Canteen  (see  England,  Legisla- 
tion), committees,  45,  54ft., 

63,  299.  305 

Can  tines    Scolaires,    adminis- 
tration in,  8 iff.,  93,  94ff. 


Cantines  Scolaires,  cost,  9iff. 
definition,  79 
educational  features,  89 
extent  of,  9 iff. 
home  visiting,  88 
menus,  88,  258 
substitutes  for,  96 
Carbohydrates       (see      Food 
Needs,     Menus,     Die- 
taries,    etc.),     amount 
needed,  241,  243 
composition,  236 
measurement,  2395. 
use  of,  236ft". 
Caterer,  84 

Causes  (see  Malnutrition,  Un- 
derfeeding), external,  14, 
68,  100,  123ft.,  125,  131, 
196ft. 
physiological,  204ft.,  213ft. 
Cent,  purchasing  power,  249ft. 

value  of,  155,  167 
Chapin,     Dr.     Robert     Coit, 
investigation     of     working- 
men's  families,  204ft. 
Charity  (see  Voluntary),  meals 
not,  5,  44,  80,  87,  98, 
108,  137,  198 
support  of  meals  by,  16, 
30ft.,  41,96,  103,  114 
Charlottenburg,  noff. 
Chemical,  see  Dietaries,  Food 

Values,  etc. 
Chicago,  19,  181,  199,  202ft. 
Children    (see    Underfeeding, 
Malnutrition,         Food 
Needs,  etc.),  cruelty  to, 
68 


INDEX 


335 


Children,  help  in  serving,  etc., 
49,  50,  57.  73.  136,  165, 
I75.I9I 

paying,  82,  93,  119,  147&. 

selection  of,  see  Adminis- 
tration 

special  food  for  delicate, 

139 

Children's   Care   Committees, 

72ff. 

Children's  Charter,  75 
Children's   Homes,    102,    105, 

115 

Child  Labor,  124 

Child  Welfare,  the  State  and, 

5,6 
Christmas,  relief  at,  38 
Cincinnati,  1736:. 
Classification      of     nutrition, 

230ff. 

Classrooms,  179,  310 
Cleanliness,  58,  152,  317 
Clinic,  59 

Clothes  provided,  77,  130,  133 
Coffee,  drinking  (see  Food 
Habits),  121,  I97ff.,  208,  214 
Collie,  Dr.,  testimony  on  un- 
derfeeding, 225 
Communal  meal,  97 
Composition,     see     Dietaries, 

Food  Values,  Menus 
Compulsory  education,  78, 102, 
116,  130 
legislation,  67,   128,    133, 

146 
meals,  I40ff. 
military  service,  106 
Conduct,  see  Results 


Congestion,  18,  26,  104,  121 

Conservation,  national,  66 
Control  children,  48,  69,  150, 

i6off. 
Cooking  classes,  144,  165 
Co-operation    in    administra- 
tion, 116,  172 
Correlation,  see  Diseases,  Mal- 
nutrition, Measurements 
Cost  (see  Support,  Administra- 
tion, etc.),  in  Open  Air 
Schools,  I49ff. 
keeping  down,  2536?. 
meals  at,  137,  147,  173 
of  meals  in  general,  45, 
56ff.,  63ff.,  8iff.,  92ff., 
119,  130,  135,  140,  145, 
149,  248ff. 
Country,  children  sent  to,  104 
districts,    meals   in,    134, 

144,  177 
districts,  need  in,  127 
Crowley,  Dr.  Ralph,  on  die- 
taries, 47,  243, 253-256 
Cuff,  Miss,  Director  Domestic 

Science,  253 
Cuno,  Dr.,  German  investiga- 
tions, 116,  172 

Danton,  quoted,  77 

Deficit,  in  home  food,  121,  149, 
208,  246s. 

Degeneracy,  factors  making 
for,  28ff. 

Delitsch,  Dr.,  of  Plauen,  on 
malnutrition,  126 

Democratic,  character  of  can- 
tines,  87 


336 


INDEX 


Denmark,  17,  146 
Dental  defects,  214 
Dessert,  149,  259 
Deterioration,  fear  of,  22ff. 
inquiry  concerning  alleged, 

25 
Diagnosis,  229!!. 
Dietaries    (see    Food    Needs, 

Values,    Menus,    etc.), 

analysis,  101 
Bibliography,  263-271 
for  different  ages,  240s. 
in  different  countries,  48, 

111,141,148,1545.,  165, 

189,  242 
planning,  46ff.,  112,  129, 

137,  141,  148,  154-,  166 
proportion  of  foodstuff  in, 

235ff. 
school,  242-247 
Dietitian,  163 
Diet  Kitchen,  128 
Dinners    (see    Menus,    Food 

Values,  etc.),  late,  122,  208 
Dining-rooms,  57, 129,  229, 306 
Diseases,  correlation  of,  with 
malnutrition,  126,  227ff. 
percentage   of,   according 
to  nutrition,  229 
Disenfranchisement,  non-pay- 
ment not  to  cause,  45,  301 
Distance  to  school,    13,   124, 

I3ii  137.  144 

Distribution,    foodstuffs    (see 
Dietaries) 
meals,  56 
Don,    Surgeon-General,    testi- 
mony of,  24 


Dresden,  103 

Duration  of  meals,  40,  112,  117 

Duray,    Victor,    Minister    of 

Public  Instruction,  79 
Dyed  food,  249 
Dyer,    Supt.    of    Schools    in 

Cincinnati,  168 

Ear  trouble,  228 
Economy,  253,  258 
Edinburgh,  23 

Educational  features  of  lunches, 
50,  57ff.,  165 
lunches  primarily,  44,  301, 

303 

value  to  mental  defectives, 

175 

Effects,  see  Results 
Efficiency,  physical,  205 
Eichholz,    Dr.,   testimony  of, 

27ff. 
England,     Bibliography     for, 
276-284 
deterioration  in,  22-43 
history  of  school  feeding, 

I5ff.,  22-43 
legislation  in,  41,  43-45, 

63ft".,  66ff.,  299-311 
malnutrition  in,  23-43 
open  air  schools,  184 
provision  of  meals  in,  43 
Equipment,  45,  56ff.,  147,  148, 
152,  1645.,  i69ff.,  174,  178 
Erismann,   Dr.,    authority  on 

diet,  134,  136ft".,  243 
Expenditure  (see  Administra- 
tion, Cost,  etc.),  of  families 
on  food,  204ft. 


INDEX 


337 


Expense,  see  Administration, 
Cost,  etc. 

Experiments  (see  Results)  35, 
47-54.  69,  99,  147,  i6off. 

Extent  (see  Underfeeding)  of 
school  feeding,  13,  14,  15, 
i6ff.,i9ff.,3i,6off.,79ff.,9i, 
93ff.,  100, 109,  no,  114, 120, 
127,  130,  I3iff.,  138,  143- 
146, 151, 165,  i8ofL 

Extra-academic    activities    of 
school,  72 

Families  (see  Home),  underfed, 

204ff. 

circumstances  of,  312 
Fat,  deficiency  of,  48,  249 
emphasis,     on    48,     166, 

244ff.,  257 
food  value  of,  source  of, 

etc.,  237,  240,  243,  249, 

255 

for  one  cent,  25off. 
Fatigue,  215 

Feeding     (see    Nutrition)    of 
infants,  26 
selective  agency,  28,  29 
Fevers,  215 

Filling  as  adulteration,  249 
Financial,  see  Cost,  Support, 

etc. 
Finland,  17 

Fireless  cookers,  169,  173,  178 
Flushing,  New  York,  148 
Food  (see  Food  Values,  Menus, 
Dietaries,  etc.),   choice 
of,  85,  155  (see  Admin- 
istration) 


Food,  energy  supplying,  236ff. 
measurement  of,  239 
mineral  constituents,  238 
tissue-building,  234ff. 
Food  needs,  adults,  235-238 
Bibliography,  263-271 
children,  235-238, 240, 247 
different  ages,  24off. 
graphic  chart  of,  241 
Food      values      (see     Menus 
and  Dietaries),  Bibliog- 
raphy, 263-271 
consumed  by  families,  205 
failure  to  meet  standard, 

U3ff. 
lunches,  planned  and  un- 
planned, 248ff. 
taught,  58,  179 
Forced  feeding,  184,  188 
Foster,  Captain,  of  Glasgow, 

investigation  by,  219 
France  (see  Cantines  Scolaires, 
Caisses  des  £coles),  Bib- 
liography, 271-273 
school  meals  in,  15,  77-98 
Free  meals,  compulsory,  i4off. 
in  different  countries,  18, 
29,  55,  66,  73,  82,  87, 
107,  108,  132,  137,  140 
investigation   before   giv- 
ing,   55,    73,    108    (see 
Home  Visiting,  Parents) 
logical  culmination  of  free 

education,  29 
no  distinction  in  case  of 
children  with,  55,  87 
Fuel,  value  of  food,  2366:. 
Furred  tongue,  212 


INDEX 


Gain,  see  Experiments,  Results, 
•    Measurements 
Gambling,  lunch  pennies,  199 
Gastpar,  Dr.,  of  Stuttgart,  in- 
vestigations by,  217,  227ff., 

23 

Gautier,    Dr.    Armand,    food 

standards  of,  241 
Germany,  Bibliography,  273- 
276 
food   habits   of   children, 

120-123 
open  air  schools,  185 
malnutrition     in,     99ff., 

I22ff. 

school  meals  in,  14, 99-129 
Girls,  relative     height     and 

weight  tables  for,  224 
Glands,  diseased,  227 
Glasgow,  housing  in,  219 
Great  Britain,  see  England 
Growth  (see  Results),  provi- 
sion for,  2335. 

Hair,  rough,  212 

Halifax,  69 

Hall,  Dr.,  of  Leeds,  on  mal- 
nutrition, 35 

Hamburg,  103 

Hand-strength,  tested,  160 

Hands  washed,  58,  152 

Hastings,  measurements,  222 

Heart  disease,  228 

Health    Board,    see    Medical 
Inspection,  66,  no,  116 

Heat  forming  foods,  236ff. 
lost,  237 
source  of,  233ff. 


Heat,  units,  239 
Height   (see  Result,  Tables), 
223,  224 
significance  of,  2i8ff. 
Hereditary  causes  of   malnu- 
trition, 214,  218 
taint,  26 
Hesse,  State  of,   child   labor 

laws,  116 
High  school  lunches,  14,  173 
History  of  school  feeding  move- 
ment, England,  22ff. 
France,  77ff. 
general,  13-21 
Germany,  I02ff. 
Holland,  i3off. 
Italy,  I38ff. 
Switzerland,  I3iff. 
Holland,  130,  131 
Holt,  Dr.  Emmet,  on  malnu- 
trition, 227 
Home    (see  Follow-up  Work, 
Parents),  condition 
studied,  123,  159,  207 
feeding,  100,   i2off.,  208, 

252 
standards  raised,  57,  244 
visiting,  104,  in 
Home  and  School  Association 
in  Boston,  164 
League,   Philadelphia, 

I5iff- 

Home  Economics  Association, 
164 

Horace  Mann  School,  meas- 
urement of  children  in,  222 

Housing,  relation  to  nutrition, 
209,  219-222 


INDEX 


339 


Huber,  Dr.,  Swiss  investigator, 

132 
Hugo,    Victor,    starts    school 

feeding  in  England,  15 
Hungry,  underfed  children  not, 

35 
Hunter,    Robert,    author    of 

"Poverty,"  196 
Hutchinson,  Dr.,  opinions  on 

nutrition,  27 
Hygiene,  committee,  164 

regulations     for,     io8ff., 

3i5ff. 
school,  16 
taught,  58,  72,  154 

Ignorance  combated,  43ff. 
relation  to  malnutrition, 

204ft. 

Incomes  (see  Poverty  Scales), 

and  underfeeding,  206ft. 
Industrial  schools,   meals  in, 
18,24 
superior  children,  24 
Inspection,  see  Administration, 

Medical  Inspection 
Irish- American  menus,  260 
children   commonly   under- 
fed, 28 
Italy,  Bibliography,  485 

refezione  scolastica,  138- 
143 

Juvenile  degeneracy,  influence 
of  bad  food  on,  28 

Kaup,  Dr.,  dietaries,  246 

German  investigator,  1 0 1  ft . 


Kelly,   Dr.,   Roman  Catholic 
Bishop  of  Ross,  testimony 
of,  28 
Kindergarten,  145 
Kitchen  (see  Equipment),  cen- 
tral, 56,  108 
legislation  providing  for, 
299,  306 
Konstance,  118 

Labor-saving  devices,  56 
Lambert,  Dr.,  of  Brighton,  on 

tuberculous  children,  68 
Lancet  Commission,  on  French 

cantines,  88 
Langworthy,  Dr.  C.  F.,  nutri- 
tion expert,  240 
Lechstecker,  Dr.,  investigates 

underfeeding,  199 
Legislation,  allied,  66ff. 
compulsory,  67,  133 
different  countries,  17,  20, 
41-46,  66,  67,  78,  81, 
107,  117,  128,  130,  133, 
146,  183,  299-311,  313- 
3i8 
taxes,  63-65,  2995. 
Lessons,  see  Results 
Leipsic,  104 

Licorice,  no  food  in,  249 
Local  needs  met,  84,  259 
London  meals  in,  36,  6iff. 
Lunches    (see    Menus,    Die- 
taries, Different  Coun- 
tries), children's  choice 
of,  44,  199,  248 
composition  and  cost  of 
street  lunch,  248ft". 


340 


INDEX 


Lung  capacity,  160 
Lymphatic  system,  215 

Mackenzie,  Dr.  Leslie,  28,  218 
McMillan,  Margaret,  quoted,  59 
Malnutrition   (see  Underfeed- 
ing and  Diseases),  acute, 
26,  106,  99,  100 

Bibliography,  286-290 

causes,  2135. 

chronic,  26,  218 

classification,  211 

definition,  211 

extent  of,  see  Underfeeding 

results,  126,  225ff. 

social  causes,  123s. 

symptoms,  21  iff. 

temporary,  218 
Management,  see  Administra- 
tion and  Organization 
Manners,  improvement  in,  50, 

74 

Manchester,  36 

Manhattan,  148 

Massachusetts,  legislation  pro- 
posed, 20,  l82ff. 

Maurice,  Major  General  Fred- 
erick, on  military  unfitness, 
22 

Maxwell,  Dr.  William,  Super- 
intendent of  New  York 
Schools,  18,  147,  201 

Meals,  see  Extent,  Administra- 
tion, Menus 

Measurements     (see     Experi- 
ments, Results),  Ameri- 
can standard,  222ff. 
British  standard,  222 


Measurements,  index  of  nutri- 
tion, 2l8ff. 
Medical  inspection,  co-opera- 
tion, 311 
committees,  30,  91,  98 
English  act,  66 
France,  91 
Germany,  107,  112 
reports  on  nutrition,  66, 
91,  123,  200ff. 
Mental  ability,   increased   by 
meals,  7off. 
not  increased  by,  71 
Mental    defectives,    malnutri- 
tion, 225ff. 
school  meals  for,  24,  174 
Mental  symptoms  of  malnutri- 
tion, 213,  225ff. 
Menus    (see    Dietaries,    Food 
Values,  etc.)  analyzed, 

H3ff- 
Bibliography,  263-271 
in  different  places,  49,  85- 
89,  noff.,  152,  165,  170, 
174,  250ff. 
planned,  III,  141,  248ff. 
records,  155ft". 
specimen,  240;  Appendices 

E,  F,  G 
unplanned,  136. 
Metchnikoff,    lactic    acid    in 

skimmed  milk,  166 
Milan,  138 
Military  unfitness,  England,  22 

Germany,  99,  126 
Milk  (see  Menus,  Food  Value, 
etc.),  49,  107,  166,  184,  238, 
3ii,3i6ff. 


INDEX 


341 


Milwaukee,  176,  182 
Minerals  in  food,  238 
Minimum  wage,  75 
Minnesota,  1788:. 
Mothers  (see  Parents),  wage 

earners,  14,  1245.,  168 
Munich,  102 

Municipal     (see     Administra- 
tion),   regulation,    107, 
no,  313ft. 
support,  114,115,132,145 
Musculature,  212 

National  (see  Legislation),  cus- 
toms, 148,  259 
Need,  see  Extent 
Neglect,  relatively  infrequent, 
124 
wilful,  68,  75,  76 
North  American,  Philadelphia, 

200 
Northampton,  England,  69 
Norway,  145 

Numbers  fed,  36,  37,  47,  57, 
6iff.,  79,  9iff.,   105,   I09ff., 
118,  131,  144,  150,  171,  173 
Nurses,  school,  54 
Nurseries,  74,  145 
Nutrition    (see    Food    Needs, 
Malnutrition,    Medical 
Inspections,  Dietaries), 
classification,  2 1  iff. 
education  in,  1298:. 
importance  nationally,  24- 

29 
in  school  age,  27,  28,  2405. 
Nutrition  laboratory ,  Teachers' 
College,  248 


Oatmeal,  51,  187 
Obligatory,  see  Compulsory 
Object  of  school  feeding,  5,  6, 

13,  i69fL,  173,  244ft. 
Open  Air  Schools,   meals  in, 
i84ff. 
administration,  194 
amount  of  food  needed,  192 
cost  of  food,  I92ff. 
England,  1855. 
Germany,  184 
requisites,  184 
support,  194 
United  States,  188 
Organization  (see  Administra- 
tion,  Support,   Equipment) 
of  meals,  31,  54,  61,  8off.,  95, 
H4fL,  117, 131,  i35fL,  i43ff., 
I45ff.,  I48ff.,  163!!.,  172 
Overcrowding  (see  Housing) 
Overlapping  of  effort,  40 
Overwork,  215 
Oxidization,  215 

Padua,  140,  141 
Parents,  absent  from  home,  13, 
14,  137,  208 
apply  for  meals,  55,  135, 

314 
delinquent,    40,    45,    124, 

300,  306 
encouraged  to  visit  meals, 

58 
ignorance  of,  44 
instruction  of,  44,  58,  72, 

in,  159 
payment  by,  45,  64,  83, 

111,300,  306 


342 


INDEX 


Parents,  responsibility  of,  59 

visited,  55,  83,  11 1,  159 

welfare  of,  secondary,  6 

Paris,  see  Cantines  Scolaires 

Parliamentary,    investigations 

and  reports,  17,  22,  2795. 
Pauperization,  45,  137,  143 
Penny  lunch,  American  cities, 

I47ff. 

Penny  Lunch  Club,  172 

Percentage,  see  Underfeeding 

Periodicals,  290-292 

Permissive,  character  of  Edu- 
cation Act,  1906,  44;  Ap- 
pendices A,  B 

Philadelphia,  19,  I5iff.,  175, 
203 

Philanthropic  School  Society, 
103 

Physical  defects  (see  Diseases, 
Malnutrition),  126,  227ff. 

Physical  training,  inquiry  into, 
23ff. 
Royal     Commission     on, 

23ff. 
recommendation     regard- 
ing, 25 
Place,  of  meals,  117,  129,  142, 

179,229,306 
Play,  213,  233 
Politics,     Italian     municipal, 

I42ff. 

Poor,  Guardians  of,  5,  41,  311 
Poorest,  children,  98,  91,  117, 

144 
sections,  109 
Poverty  (see    Causes),  book, 

196 


Poverty,  relation  to  underfeed- 
ing, 2041!. 
Poverty  Scale,  England,  55,  64 

Germany,  129 
Preparation  and   service   (see 
Administration,      Organiza- 
tion), 45,  49,  50,  56,  64,  86, 
96,  97,  136 
Prevention  of  cruelty  to  chil- 
dren, 68 
Preventive  measure,  68 
Price   (see  Cost),  should  not 

exceed,  137 
Private   (see  Charity,   Volun- 
tary) schools,  130 
Promotion,  influenced  by  un- 
derfeeding, 226ff. 
Protein  (see  Dietaries,  Menus, 
etc.),  amount   for    one 
cent,  250ft. 
amount  needed,  235*!.,  243 
emphasized      in      school 
menus,  48,  244,  245,  257 
fuel  value,  237,  240 
lacking  in  home  meals,  48, 

244fif. 
low  amount  found,  H3ff., 

249 
sources,  2345.,  2555. 
starvation,  48ff. 
tissue-building,  2345. 
Provision  of  Meals  Act,  Com- 
mittee on,  3 iff. 
passage  and  adoption,  43ff. 
text,  432.,  Appendices  A 
andB 
Prussia,  105 
Psychological  Clinic,  163 


INDEX 


S43 


Public  Charity  (see  Voluntary, 
Charity,  Private,  etc.),  41,46 

Purpuric  petechia?,  36,  213 

Purchase  of  food  (see  Adminis- 
tration), 85,  148,  171 

Pushcarts,  169,  248 

Racial     standard     of     food, 
growth,  212,  219,  232,  259ff. 
Ration  (see  Dietaries,  Food  Val- 
ues, Menus) ,  daily,  2426:. 
proportion,  2445. 
Recipes     (see    Menus),     156, 

248ff.,  3i8ff.,  327fL,  3306?. 
Records   (see  Administration, 
Organization),  68,  86,  155s., 
23off.,  312,  314 
Refezione     Scolastica,     Italy, 

I38ff. 
Relief  (see  Charity,  Voluntary, 
etc.),  Germany,  103 
of  school  children's  order,4i 
societies  in  England,  306:. 
Religious  customs,  259 
Resistance  to  disease,  227ff. 
Responsibility  of  parents,  see 
Parents 
of  State  for  physical  con- 
dition, 5,  6,  80 
Restaurant  (see  Canteens,  Can- 
tines,  etc.),  school,  16, 44,  79, 
117,  140 
Results  (see  Malnutrition,  Un- 
derfeeding, Disease,  Ex- 
periments, Physical  De- 
fects) ,  conduct,  manners, 
lessons,  50,  58,  63,  70, 
74,  162 
medical  inspection,  73 


Results,  school  meals,  34, 5off., 

66ff.,  70,  74,  150,  162 
Retardation  and  malnutrition, 

226ff. 

Richards,  Prof.  Ellen  H.,  164s. 

Rickets,  228 

Ritchie,  Dr.  Brown,  on  under- 
feeding, 36,  225 

Rome,  140 

Royal  Decree  in  Holland,  130 

Rubner,  Dr.  Max,  nutrition 
expert,  ill,  127,  245 

Rumford,  Count,  social  re- 
former, 14 

Russia,  17 

St.  Paul,  Minn.,  181,  203 

Salaries,  see  Cost,  Support, 
Administration 

Sanitation  (see  Hygiene),  108 

San  Remo,  138,  142 

Scotland,  67 

School  authorities,  see  Admin- 
istration 

School  Lunch  Committee,  147, 
163,  202,  207 

Schoolroom,  use  of,  for  meals, 
57,  129,  229,  306 

Self-supporting,  147,  150 

Service,  see  Preparation,  Ad- 
ministration, etc. 

Shops,  food,  44,  250 

Shut-outs,  lunches  for,  168 

Sill,  Dr.  E.  Martin,  investiga- 
tion in  New  York,  241 

Simon,  Helene,  German  writer 
on  social  economy,  1278:. 

Skimmed  milk,  167 


344 


INDEX 


Social,  all  grades  represented, 
14,  55,  87,  121,  125 
legislation,  66ff.,  1275. 
reforms,  allied,  101,  I27ff. 
workers,  19,  120,  124,  187, 
159,  163 
Socialist,    activity   in   Italian 
cities,  I42ff. 
Germany,  105 
Soup  kitchens,  14,  102 
Spain,  17 

Spargo,  John,  90,  1975. 
Standard       (see       Nutrition, 
Menus,  Dietaries,  Un- 
derfeeding)   of    living, 

204ff. 

ration,  136,  205 

Starch,  236,  246 

Starr  Centre  Association,  Phil- 
adelphia, 19,  157 

Sterilization  of  dishes,  154 

Stove  in  rural  schools,  97,  178 

Strain  of  school  work,  27,  53 

Street  begging,  142 

food  bought  on,  44,  169, 
198,  248 

Stuttgart,  107,  217,  3i3ff. 

Supervision,    see   Administra- 
tion 

Subsidies,  see  Cost,  Support, 
Administration 

Sugar,  167,  236 

Supplementary  lunch,  190 

Support  (see  Cost,  Administra- 
tion), statistics  of,   15,  45, 

63ff.,77.  9iff->  H4ff..  H9ff., 
I30ff.,  138s.,  I44ff.,  1475., 
170,  I93ff. 


Sweden,  143 
Switzerland,  131-138 
Bibliography,  292 
Symptoms,  see  Malnutrition 
Syracuse,  open  air  schools,  191 

Tables,    dining,    50,    57,    74, 

in 
Tables  of  measurements,  222ff. 
Taxes,  see  Legislation 
Teachers  (see  Administration) 
attend   meals,    57,   82, 

139,  153 

not  required  to  serve,  45, 
83, 301 

payment  of,  57,  139 

reports  on  meals  and  un- 
derfeeding, 34,  51,  58, 
120,  123,  132,  167 

selection  of  children,  54, 

"7,  131 

Teeth,  bad,  214 

Tickets   (see  Administration), 

87,  108,  152,  315 
Time,  Economy,  179 
Tissue    (see   Food,   Malnutri- 
tion, Protein,  Dietaries, 
etc.),  excessive  breaking 
down  of,  2i5ff. 
insufficient    building    up, 

2I4ff. 

Tonics,  91 

Tonsig,    Dr.,    of    Padua,    on 

dietaries,  141,  243 
Truancy  law,  76 
Tuberculosis    (see    Open    Air 

Schools),  children  with,  68, 

126,  I39ff.,  228 


INDEX 


345 


Underfed,  see  Underfeeding 
Underfeeding    (see    Malnutri- 
tion),  American   cities, 
196-21 i 
among  mental  defectives, 

225 
causes,  120-123,  i96fL 
effect,  see  Malnutrition 
extent  of,  25,  29,  30,  34, 
46,  47,  105,  120,  I25ff.f 
130-145,  175 
other  countries,  5,  22-43, 

123-126,  I30ff. 
relation  to  income,  206 
to  housing,  209,  2198:. 
Unemployment,    33,    38,    65, 

102,  124 
Uniform  meal  tickets,  87,  108, 

375 

Unit,  food  need,  205 

heat  measurement,  239 
United  States  (see  American), 

Bibliography,  292-297 
Uri,  135 

Vacation,  colonies,  17,  I03ff. 

loss  of  weight  during,  53 

meals  during,  62 
Vagrancy,  14,  102 


Variety,  in  menus,  49,  172,  155, 

256ff. 
Venice,  140 
Vercelli,  141 
Vermin,  215,  228 
Vienna,  143 
Vitality,  69,  213 
Volkswohlfahrt,     Zentralstelle 

fur,  101 
Voluntary    (see    Charity   and 

Relief),    societies,    support, 

etc.,  30ff.,  38ff.,  64s. 

Wales,  43,  62ff. 

Wallesey,  71 

Warming,  facilities  for,  96,  177 

Washing  up,  136,  148,  154 

Water,  need,  2388:. 

Weight,  see  Tables,  Measure- 
ments, Malnutrition 

Webb,  Beatrice,  quoted,  5,  6 

Wile,  Dr.  Ira  S.,  on  diet,  260 

Wood,  Dr.  Thomas  D.,  meas- 
urements, 222 

Women's  clubs,  19,  168 

Wurtemburg,  118 


Zurich,  I34ff. 


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